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KKK 



THE 



JOURNAL 



OF THE 



MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL 



SOCIETY. 




VOL. XXII. 



HANCHESTEK : 
PRINTED FOR THE UANCBESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 

mc. 



COUNCIL AND OFFICERS 



OF THB 



MANCL., 

iTHb: HEW YORK] 

PUBLIC LIBRARY 



GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 

FOR 1906. 



A8T0R. LtHOX AljO 
TILDEN fOVJM0ATIOl«, 



(rtiibent. 
[igUuMs tho PRINCE OF WALES, K.O. 

Oice-Qrtftbtntf. 



His Qrnce the Dukb of Devonsbirk, K.O. 
The Right Hon. the Earl of Dsrby, K.0. 
llie Right Hon. Earl Egertok of Tattox. 
The Riiht Rev. the Bishop or Balford. 
The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor or 

Makchbstir. 
His Worship tlie Mayor of Oldham. 
His Worship the Mayor op Balford. 
The Vics-Chakcellor of Victoria Uni- 

VlRfllTY. 

The Right Rev. Monsionor Gadd, V.G. 
81r W. H. HouLDswoRTH, Bart. 
HoK. W. Rothschild, M.P. 

!Sir HUMPHRCT P. DR TRAFFORD, Bort. 

Sir Frank Forbbs Adam, O.I.E. 
Sir W. H. Holland, M.P. 
Alderman Sir BoeoiH T. Lebch, J.P. 
Sir Joseph Leigh, J.P. 
Hlr William Mather, J.P. 
Mr. Frederic Burton, J.P. 



Mr. J. F. Chektham, M.P. 

Professor T. H. Core, M.A. 

Mr. W. J. Crosslbv, M.P. 

Professor W. Bovd Dawkinr, J.P., P.R8. 

Alderman Jambs Duckworth, M.P., F R.G.S. 

Mr. J. G. Groves, J.P. 

Mr. J. 8. Bioham, M.P. 

Mr. B. W. Mellor. J.P., F.R.G.8. 

Mr. Harrt Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S.i Viet- 

Ckairtttan of the CounciL 
Mr. 8. Oppbnhbim, J.P. 
Mr. J. Howard Reed. 
Mr. C. E. Schwann, M.P. 
Mr. C. P. Bcott, J.P. 
Mr. H. Bowler, J.P. 
Rev. 8. A. Bteinthal, F.R.G.S., Chairman 

Hf the OouncU. 
Mr. J. D. WiLDB, M.A. 

Mr. F. ZiMMERN. 



Srusictf. 

Mr. H. Nuttall, M.P., F.R G.8. Mr. Sydney L. Keymkr. F.R.G.8. 

Mr. £. W. Mkllom, J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Donorars Cremnter. 
Mr. David A. Little. 



Cottnctl. 



Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Jas. Barningham. 
Mr. O. T. Bowks. 

Mr. J. C. CUORLTON, J.P. 

Mr. 0. Oollmann, 

Consul for German Empire. 
Colonel H. T. Crook, J.P., C.E. 
Major E. W. Greg. J. P., O.C, F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Councillor T. Hassall. J.P. 
Mr. A. J. Kennedy, F.B.G.8. 



Mr. N. Kolp. 

Mr. John McFarlakr, M.A. 

Mr. Horace C. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. T. C. Middletos, J.P. 

Mr. R. C. Phillips. 

Mr. Councillor John Bnaddon. 

Mr. T. W. SowERBun's. 

Mr. George Thomas. 

Mr. H. Woollea-, F.R.G.S. 



Honorary j^ccretarun. 

Mr. F. Zimmern. | Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

Mr. C. A. Clarke (Victorians). 

Jionorars ^xibUor. 
Mr. Theodore Gregory, F.CA. 

^Miftani i»ecrctars. 
Harry Sowerbutts. 



CONTENTS. 



A 

PAflB. 

Abbey at B«eleigb, EAsez 100 

Abhayaglrla Dagoba, Ceylon 20 

Accounte,1905 81 

A Chapter in the History of the Exolora* 
tion of the Canadian Rocky Moun- 
tains C5 

Adam'aPeak 8 

Additions to the Library 154 

Museum 174 

Address by Rt Hon. Lord Stanley 04 

Address presented to Rev. 8. A. 8teinthal. 150 
Africa, East, Uganda— Rev. A. B. Flaber, 

F.R.G.8 144 

African Lan«[ua«re8— A. C. Madan 143 

Afiica, South, With the British Association 149 

Alps, Southern, of Japan 90 

Ambustala Dagoba, Ceylon 15 

America^ Jamaica 118 

North, Canadian Rocky Mountains . . 65 

Andemach 139 

Annual Dinner, 190A 93 

Annual Meeting, 1906 75 

Ant-hills in Ceylon 5 

An Undiscovered Gouotry^ and the English 

Holland— M. W. Thompstone .... 97 

Anursdhapura, Ceylon 16 

** A Proffreuive Cawnt of Comparative Oco- 

graphy on the Conetntrie Si^tUm " . . 96 
Asia, Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance 1 
" Aiia : Comparative Series of Large School* 

room Map$" 55 

Asia, Hong Kong, In and Around If 8 

India, The Punjab and its People 26 

Sakhalin 73 

Athabasca River, Sources of 66. 70 

Atlases, Albums, Ac, added to the Library 155 

Atlan.New 107 

•• Atlai 0/ the World's C&idinerce " 107 



B 

Bacarach 141 

Balance Sheet, 1905 82 

Bamboos in Jamaica 129 

Bananas in Ceylon 7 

In Jamaica 127 

Banff, Canada 66 

Barbecues for Drying Coffee 123 

Beeleigh Abbey, Easex 100 

Bellaha, B. I., Death of 148 

Bellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S.—Fairford Church 152 
Benson, Captain W. J. P., F.R.G.S.— To the 

Southern Pacific Across the Andes 150 

Bhakkar, Punjab 29 

Bingen 141 

Black River Town 124 

Blackwater River, at Maldon 98 

Blue Mountains, Jamaica 117 

Blythbur^h 104 

Blyth River 108 

Boat Building by Negro iu Jamaica 125 

Bog Walk, Jamaica 132 

Bonn 138 

Books added to the Library 156 

— — Notices of New, lee Reviews. 



PACK. 

Boutiques, or Village Shopp, Ceylon 5 

Britlah Association for the Advancement of 

Science— Delegates' Report 145 

Brown, J. B.— Cotton Growing, &c 88 

, Mount, Canada, PositioYi of 65 

Brown's Town, Jamaica 120 

Buddha, Colossal Statue, Ceylon 28 

Statues in Ceylon 22 

Buddhism in Ceylon 15 



Cacao Harvest in Jamaica 182 

Canada— Rocky Mountains, Exploration of 65 

Canton 112 

Capellen 140 

Carrlbbean Sea 114 

Cassava Cakes in Jamaica 122 

Cathedral of the Peak, Tideswell 147 

Cattle and Horse Pen, or Estate 11{» 

Ceylon Products 7 

with a Retrospective Gin nee, 1905— 

E. W. Mellor, J. P. , P.R.G. 8 1 

Children's Lecture— Jas. S. Reid 153 

China, Houg Kong 108 

Shansl— R. W. Swallow, B.Sc 143 

TheWestRiver Ill 

Churches of Rome 44 

Climate of the Punjab 80 

Coblentz 189 

Coffee Plantation at Brokenhurst, Jamaica 123 

Cclchester 101 

Cologne 137 

Colombo 3 

Columbus and Jamaica 113 

Constant Spring Hotel, Jamaica 117 

Correspondence 143 

Corresponding Societies, List of 164 

Cotton Tree, Tom Cringle's 133 

Council and Officers, List of 86 

Covehithe 104 

Crossing the Indus River 28 

Customs and Manners of the People uf the 

Pimjab 36 



Dagobas of Ceylon 15 

Dalada MaUgawa, or Temple of the Tooth.. 12 

Dambulla Rock Temple, Ceylon 22 

Dann, E. W., B.A., F.R.G.8.— Orography 

and History 56 

Dera Ismail Khan, Punjab 28 

Devil Dancers, Ceylon 6 

Dinner, Annual, 1906 93 

Discovery of Ceylon 1 

Donations, Listof 84 

Dordrecht 136 

Drachenfels, The 139 

Dunwlch 105 

DUsaeldcrf 136 

Dutthagaminl's Statue, Ceylou IS 



IV. 



COXTKXTS. 



PACK 

Hut If OTMa, EMex 101 

ElirenbreitftCeiii 139 

Electric Power Statton oa Bio Cotare River 133 

Elephaot* in Ce^Ioa IS 

Bnglaiid, E<wex 97 

Great Hueklow. Visit to 147 

Englmd. Marple, Visit of Members 115 

English Holland. The 97 

Emcx, sn UndlscoTered Count<y, ibc .... i>7 

Journey in 9S 

E«Utes in Jamaica 119 

Kurupe, The Rhine 1:^ 

KTsmifiation in Geography, Report on ... . 78 

ExcaTsttons of the Forum« Rome 4i 

Excbaoj^es with other Societies IM 

Exc'irsians of the Society i'6, 145 



PAOX. 

IndaaRi««r.CniariBCthe 27 

, IncittSB, Matthew— Denmark 87 

lp|ii-Appi Bate, MaaofMture of 1S7 

IpawicCT: 102 

Irrigation in the Pan jab 29 



J 

JakProit, Ceylon 7 

Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian 
Poaseaaions— E. W. MeUor, J.P., 

F.R.G.& 113 

Japan, Southern Alps 90 

Jetowanarama Dagoba, Ceylon SO 



F 

Fslmonth, Jsmaica 129 

right at Maldon, SoDg of i*9 

Fuichwood, Marple, Meeting at 115 

Fisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S.— Correspon- 
dence 144 

Fomm, Rome, Excavations of the 42 

Francis Xavler and Ceylon 1 

From Snowfields to Vineyards 148 

Fruit Trale in Jamaica 127 

Fiimiikhing and Debt Liquidation Fund .. .S3 



G 

Galle 4 

•' 6o2flU(r, LippincotCi Htw " i>4 

Geographical Aspect ot Ceylon 2 

" QfOffraphieol (Utanhtffi," 6y Rev. Frank JL 

Burrotn^ it,A ."iS 

Geography, Examination, Report on .... 78 

Historicsl 56 

Gibson, Dr. Robert — In and Around Hong 

Kong 90, 108 

Gordon Town 117 

Great Hucklow Holiday Home, Visit to .. 147 

Gregory Lake, Ceylon 8 



H 

Hailstone, Rev. 8.,M.A.— Roman Remains: 

Their Witness to History 41 

Hamnett. R.— Melandra 96 

Happy Valley, Hong Kong (Wong-ual- 

chung) 108 

HatA, Manufacture of Ippi-Appi, or Panam i 1 27 

Heidelberg 141 

Hiffginaon, Rev. P. M., M.A.— Bsalbek .. 89 

Himalayas, Value of, to the Punjab 20 

Hindus of the Punjab 84 

lilriich, Mm. Louite — Life in Queensland.. 150 

Historical Geography 56 

Hi»tory and Orography 56 

History of Ceylon 1, 14 

History of Maldon 90 

History, Roman Remains, their Witness to 41 

Holland and Its Climate 1S6 

Hong Koog— Dr. Robert Gibson 108 

Hooker, Mount, Canada, Position of 65 



In and Around Hoog Kong— Dr. Robert 

Gibson : 108 

India, the Punjab and its PeDple 26 



K 

Kaigane Mountain, Japan 91 

Kandy 9 

Kekwawe, Ceylon 5 

Kelani Temple, Ceylon 7 

Kinnton, Jamaica 115 

KosEu Mountains, Japan 90 



L 

LakeofKandy 9 

Land Question in the Punjab SO 

Languages of Africa 143 

Lankarama Dagoba, Ceylon 22 

Leaf Insects of Ceylon 25 

Lectures, Victinlan 79 

Lecture to Children-^as. S. Reid 153 

Ubrary Additions 154 

" lApplneotV* If IV Gazetteer " 64 

IJst of Correspond inff Societies 164 

List of Council and Officers 86 

List of Donations 84 

List of Mape. Books, Ac, added to the 

Library 154 

List of Members of the Society 176 

Little, David A. -4reat Hucklcw Holiday 

Home 147 

Llandovery Falls, Jamaica 130 

Lucea, Jamaica 126 



M 

Macao 112 

Madan, A. C— African Laugiiages 143 

Uaglan, A. C, M.D., F.R.G.S.— The Rhine 

and its Legends 185 

Macinnis, R., DeaUi of 148 

Maba Sen. King, and his Dagoba 20 

Maha Ben's Pavilion 21 

M.xba Seya Dagoba, Ceylon 15 

Mahawansa, The, Ceylon 14 

Mahaweliflranga— Great River of Kandy . . 11 

Maldon, Esses .' 98 

MandeviUe, Jamaica 121 

Map, New 142 

Maps added to the Library 154 

Notioes of New, tee Reviews. 

Market at MandeviUe 122 

Maroons in Jamaica 127 

Marple, Visit of the Members to 145 

Meeting, Annual, 1906 75 

Meetings of the Society, «€« Proceedings 

MeUndra- Visit of the Society 96 

MeUor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S.--Ceylon, 
with a Retrospectlvd Glance, 1905 .... 1 

B. W., J.P, F.R.G.S.-JamaicR 113 

Members of the Society, List of 176 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Menea,£ast 101 

31 ihintale Mouataln, Geylou 15 

Uilk River, Bathing Eatablishment, 

Jamaica 119 

Mohammedans of the Punjab 84 

Honeymusk Sugar Estate and Factory. . . . 120 

Montego Bay, Jamaica *. 127 

Moonstone of King Maha Sen's Payilion . . 21 

If urray, Adam, Death of ' 148 

Museum, Additions to 174 



N 

Nalande Rest-house, Ceylon 7 

Naseby Tea Estate, Ceylon 9 

Negroes of Jamaica 115 

New Books, Notices of, ite Reviews. 

Newcastle Camp, Jamaica 118 

'* Nev Orograpkical Map of Atia" 142 

Notices of New Books, Me Reviews. 

Nuwara Eliya, Ceylon 7 



O 

Ocho Rios Bay, Jamaica ISO 

Officers and Council, List of SC 

Orography and History— E. W. Dann, B. A., 

F.R.O.S 56 

Osea Island 101 

Ox-cart of Ceylon 10 ^ 



Panama Hats, Making of 127 

People of Jamaica 115 

otthePunlab 33 

Ferediniya Gardens, Kandy 11 

Pbelps, J. J.— The Pyrenees and Pyreneau 

People 149 

Phillips, R. C— Arabic Music 152 

R. C. — Life and Scenes on the Congo. 152 

Pipestone Valley, Journey up the 66 

Population of Ceylon 2 

Por( Antonio, Jamaica 131 

Maria, Jamaica 181 

Portuguese and Ceylon 1 

Positlona of Motmts Brown and Hooker . . 65 

Proceedings of tbe Society 87, 145 

Punjab, The, and its People 26 



Q 

i^uecnsland, Life in 150 



R 

Reed. J. Howard— Cuba 153 

Geography and the Manchester Society 95 

Presentation to ^ 152 

Report of Delegate 145 

Rees, Rev. F. A.—From Snowficlds to 

Vineyards 14S 

Held, Jas. Stephenson— Lecture to Children 153 

Scottish Scenery, Song and Story .... 148 

Religion of Ceylon 3 

Remains, Roman 44 

Report of the Hon. Examiner in Geography 78 

of the Society for 1905 75 

of the Victorians 79 

Rest-house at Nalande, Ceylon 7 

Reviews 55,64,96,107, 142 

Rhine, The, and its Legends 135 



PAGE. 

RloCobre, Jamaica 132 

Rivers of the Punjab 27 

Road Menders (female) in Jamaica 129 

Roaring River Waterfalls ISO 

Rodney Temple, 8i)aniBh Town 138 

Roman Relics at Colchester 102 

Remains : Their Witness to History- 
Rev. S. Hailstone, M. A. 41 

Rotterdam 136 

Ruanweli Dagoba, Ceylon 18 

RuinsofRome 44 

Rules of the8ociot7 181 

Runaway Bay, Jamaica 130 



Sakhalin, The Partition of 78 

Santa Cruz, Jamaica 184 

Saskatchewan River Valley, Journey up the 68 

Savan 'la Mar, Jamaica 126 

Scottish Scenery, Song and Story 148 

Sigiriya Rock, Ceylon 24 

Sikhs of the Punjab 80 

Qnakes in Ceylon 5 

Society, List of Members of th 176 

Rulesoftho 181 

Soirte of the Society 151 

Sole Bay, Southwold 104 

Song of the Fight at Maldon (in 991 a. d. ) . . 99 
South Africa— CaptAin Wakefield, D.L., J.P. 149 
Boutham, Dr. T. Frank— Some South Sea 

Islands 89, 161 

Southwold 108 

Spanish Town, Janmica 114, 133 

Stanley, Rt. Hon. Lord— Geography and 

itsStudy 94 

Steamers on the Rhine 138 

Steinthal. Rev. S. A., F.R.G.S., Celebration 

of 80th Birthday 150 

Stephenson, Captain J.— The Punjab and 

itsPeople 26 

Rugar Estate and Factory at Moueymusk . . 120 

Swallow, R. W., B.8c.— China 89 

Correspondence 143 



Tamils of Ceylon 8 

Tea Cultivation, Coylon 8 

Plantation and Factory, Ceylon 8 

Temple of the Tooth, Ceylon 9 

The Punjab and its People ->Captain J. 

Stephenson 26 

The Rhine and its Legends— A. C. Magian, 

M.D., F.RG.S 135 

The West River, China Ill 

Thompstone, M. W.— English Holland, Ac. 

90, 97 

An Undiscovered Country, &c 90, 9 

Thuparama Dagoba, Ceylon 16 

Tldeswell, Visit to 147 

Tom Cringle's Cotton Tree 133 

Tooth Temple, Kandy 9 

Troops at Kingston 116 

Turtles at Ktogston 116 



Uganda— Rev. A. B. Fisher, F.RG.S 14 



V 

Victoria, Hong Kong 108 

Victorians, Annual Report 79 

Visits of the Society 96, 145 



VI. 



CONTENTS. 



W 

PAOE. 

WainwTight, Joel, J. P. — Letter to Mr. 

H«ceptloii by, »t PiDchwood 145 

Wakefield. Gftpti^ E. W. , D. L. . J.P.— South 

Africa 1« 

Walberawlck 105 

Waterfalla In Jamftica ISO 

West Indies, Jamaica 118 

Weaton, Rev. Walter, M.A., F.R.O.S.— 

Southern Alpa of Japan 90 

West River, The, China HI 

Whampoa Port and Dock 112 

White River Waterfalls 131 



PAGB. 

Wilde, J.D. , M. A.— Report on Examination 78 

Women In the Ponjab 37 

Woodhead. TiiBothy, Death of US 

WooUej, Hermann, F.R.O.B.~EzploTa* 
tiona in the Canadian Rocky Moun- 
tains «5 



Yams in Jamaica 1S2 

Y. 8. Falls, Jamaica 125 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAOK. 

America— 

Jamaica, Coffee Barbecues at Brokenhurst 12 

•*DugouU*'andBuUder 124 

Moneymusk Works 118 

— Nativo Shop, Gordon Town IIS 

Street in Lucea ISO 

— Tom Cringle's Cotton Tree ISO 



Asia— 

Ceylon, Anuradliapura— Moonstone, Mtiha Sen's Pavilicn 21 

Anuradhapura— Ruanweli Dagoba 19 

Colossal Rock Buddha 24 

Mr. and Mrs. Mellor at Colombo Frontispiece 

Ox Cart at Kandy 11 

Queen Street, Colombo 4 

Temple of the Tooth, and Dagoba, at Kandy 13 

—^ Village of Kekerawe 6 

Sketch Map of Sakhalin 73 



Europe— 



England, An Essex Salting 08 

Covehithe Church 103 

Maldon from the River 9 

St Edmund's, Southwold 103 

Walberswick 1C3 



^*^ THE WRITERS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR OPINIONS. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 







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THE JOURNAL 



MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 



CEYLON, WITH A RETROSPECTIVE GLANCE, 1905. 

By E. W. Mellob, J.P., F.B.G.S. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall« on Tuesday, 
December 5th, 1905.] 

FOLLOWING up the long series of Voyages of Discovery, 
inaugurated in the fifteenth century by that remarkable and 
enterprising Portuguese Prince known in history aa "Henry the 
Navigator," a Portuguese ship doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and 
having made its way into the Indian Ocean, there found an Island 
whose shores were fringed with groves of Coooanut Palms, beneath 
which flourished a growth of smaller trees and shrubs, often thickly 
matted together by gay flowering creepers, beyond these cinnamon, 
and other spice-bearing trees in luxuriant profusion — altogether an 
island greatly to be desired. 

This was Ceylon. 

News was carried to the dark-brown King of the Island, by natives 
of like colour, that dose to the spot where now stands the City of 
Colombo there had anchored a ship containing ''men surpassingly 
white and beautiful, wearing boots and hats of iron, eating a white 
atone, and drinking blood, and having guns which could break a 
castle of marble/' for so to their untutored minds seemed the armour, 
the white bread, the red wine, and the cannons of the Portuguese. 

Fierce were the struggles with the native Kings, but Sie white 
men had come to stay ! 

In 1505 the Portuguese established themselves in Ceylon, erecting 
fortifications at Colombo. 

Francis Xavier, sometimes called the " Apostle of the East," came, 
and taught, and made converts to the Roman Catholic Faith. 

The effects of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 140 years, 
are still visible in the number of persons b^iring names obviously of 
Portuguese derivation, and in the large body of native Roman 
Catholics dwelling in the midst of the Buddhist population. 

But the Portuguese were never able to subdue the mountain 
people, the Cingalese Highlanders, in the centre of the island, who, 
under their Kings of Kandy, maintained- a perpetual guerilla warfare. 

The wealth of the island excited the cupidity of the Dutch, and in 
Vol. XXII.— Nos. 1-6— Jan. to June, 1906. 



»y 



2 The Journal of the Manchester Geog-raphical Society, 

1602 they made an alliance, with the object of gain, with the King 
of Kandy. In 1638 they landed a force to assist their ally against his 
Portuguese enemies, with the result that the Portuguese were driven 
out of the island, and the Dutch in their turn established themselves 
in Ceylon. 

Many evidences of the Dutch occupation remain, and we shall 
find them notably at Point de Galle. 

The end of the eighteenth century, you may remember, found 
Holland at war with Great Britain. The fighting spread' from Holland 
to Ceylon, where the possessions of the Dutch were captured by the 
English. The Dutch finally evacuated the island in 1796, and in 1798 
the first Britisih Governor was appointed. 

Ceylon, poetically called " The Eden of the Eastern Wave," is now 
the Premier Crown Colony of the British Empire. 

Thirty-four years, however, elapsed before the last King of Kaiidy, 
whose methods were cruel and bloodthirsty, was finally subdued after 
inciting several rebellions, and causing much bloodshed. 

The British have thus accomplished that which neither the Portu- 
guese nor the Dutch were able to accomplish — ^that is, the conquest of 
the Mountain-dwellers and their King, and the bringing of the whold 
island under one peaceful rule. 

As a result of this beneficent rule, instead of roughly-cut jungle- 
paths, uneven and swampy, impassable for wheeled traffic, and olten 
intersected by wide and rapid rivers, the whole island is now traversed 
by good, broad highroads, well made, and well drained, and carried 
by strong and handsome bridges over narrow streams and wide rivers. 
Splendid works of irrigation are in operation. Persons and property 
are secure, and on all aides are signs of prosperity. 

Let us now glance at the geographical aspect of Ceylon. 

If we imagine the coast-line of the great Indian Peninsula to be 
like a lady's jewelled necklaoe, then Ceylon is the pear-shaped 
jewelled pendant at the end of that necklace. 

Compared with the size of India, how small is its pendant! And 
yet this jewelled pendant, Ceylon, is about equal in size to Belgium and 
Holland put together, or three-fourths the size of Scotland. 

The greatest length of the island is 270 miles, and the greatest 
width 13y miles, with an area of 25,481 square miles. 

The name Ceylon is a corruption of an ancient native name, 
"Sinhala," which signifies "Island of Lions," although no lions are 
to be found there nowadays. From " Sinhala " is derived the modem 
descriptive name " Cingalese." 

The north of the idand and the coast is of coral and coral lime- 
stone formation, with great blocks of gneiss rock rising in the centre 
to lofty mountains, whose slopes are covered with thousands of acre.<* 
of tea plantations. Tea grows at a height of more than six thousand 
feet above sea level. 

Kandy, the ancient capital, is in the centre of the island, high up 
amid the mountains and tea eetates. 

Colombo, the modem capital, the largest city, and the seat of 
government, is down on the sea coast, on the west of the island. 

According to the census of 1901, the population of Ceylon is 
upwards of three and a half millions, of whom nearly two and a half 



Ceylon, with a Retrobjpective Glance^ 1905. 3 

millionB are Cingalese; nearly a million are Tamils, an Indian race; 
while only 6,300 are Europeans. 

Of this three and a half millions of population, over two milliona 
are Buddhists, which is, therefore, by far the prevailing religion of 
Ceylon ; indeed, Ceylon has long been venerated, as we shall see, aa 
the sacred land of Buddhism. 

Of the population, nearly 60 per cent are Buddhists, 27 per cent 
are Hindua, and only some 10 per cent are Christians. 

Colombo harbour is one of the finest artificial harbours in the 
world, thanks to a magnificent breakwater I Six hundred and sixty 
acres of water are enclosed with a depth of upwards of thirty feet. 
Men-of-war and the largest liners can therefore be easily accommo- 
dated. 

The opening of the Sues! Canal no doubt brought the stream of 
traffic in this direction, and now almost all the lines of steamers 
running from Europe to the East, and to Australia, call here. 

Beyond the large coal-lighters we come to the landing jetty. 

But the curious boats, or canoes, between us and the jetty, excite 
our interest. 

They are called catermarans, and are, each of them, hollowed out of 
tiie trunk of a tree. They are extremely narrow, being a dose fit for 
one person. Safe balance is secured by an out-rigger arrangement, 
by which a beam, or float, is attached by poles, about ten feet long, 
to the body of the boat. 

They carry a sail, which enables them to fly before the breeze^ 
and the out-rigged balance enables them to stand a very rough sea. 

Here, we are in one of the principal streets. Queen Street. (See 
page 4.) The lighthouse is one of the peculiarities of Colombo. It 
stands, as you see, right in the town, and is a point to which several 
streets converge. (It stood here long before the buildinpr of the 
breakwater.) 

The lighthouse towers so high above the houses that its beams 
are seen at a great distance out at sea. 

The gentleman striding down the middle of the street is an 
Afghan. 

There is quite a colony of Afghans in Ceylon, and big flne chaps 
they are, too ; taller and bigger than the Cin^ese, and they generally 
wear more clothing. The principal trade of the Afghans in Ceylon 
is horse breeding and horse dealing. 

Mrs. Mellor and I went about Colombo in rickshaws, drawn by 
coolies, who will run with you, for a long distance, at a louping tro^t, 
without showing any signs of distress, but the stones in the roads 
must be trying to their bare feet. (See frontispiece.) 

Our two men were not pure Cingalese, but Tamils, an Indian race, 
and seem somewhat more capable of sustained hard work than are 
the Cingalese. 

Unlike the Cingalese, these Tamils wear their hair short, and 
cover their heads with turbans. 

Notwithstanding a somewhat truculent-looking exterior, the tastes 
of the Tamil coolie are very simple, his ideas are few, and he usually 
lives at peace with his neighbours, especially if his somewhat out- 
landish customs and prejudices are respected. 



4 The Journal of the Mancliester Geographical Society, 

In Colombo you find rows of Tamil Rickshaw Cooliea, waiting for 
hire, like a row of cabs. 

Note another rickshaw man, not a Tamil, a Cingalese; you see 
his long hair is done up into a chignon behind his head. 

The Indian and Cingaleae women carry their babies, not in their 
arms, but astride their hips, one little leg dangling down in front 
and the other behind. 

On our way we pass the entrance to a Hindu temple, in one of the 
smaller Colombo streets. The ornamentation is elaborate and rather 




QUEEN STREET, COLOMBO. 



barbaric, as perhaps befits a faith in a multitude of spirits, wiiere it ia 
believed tliat the good spirits will not hurt you because they are 
good, but the evil spirits must be propitiated because they are evil. 

Hinduism seems to me a lower and more debased type of religion 
than Buddhism, which has a moral philosophy. 

Now, moving southward along the coast for some 75 miles, we 
arrive at Galle. Galle was a busy emporium a thousand years before 
Colombo assumed importance. 

Sir Emerson Tennant says : — " Galle is by far the most venerable 
emporium of foreign trade now existing in the universe; it was the 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 5 

resort of merchant ships at the earliest dawn of oommerce." He then 
proceeds to ahow, at greater length thaa I can quote here, that Gallo 
was the ancient Tarshish of King Solomon, and how ivory, apes, and 
peacocks are indigenous to Ceylon. Let me refer you to his work. 

The harbour is small, and not very safe in rough weather, but 
as there is considerable depth of water, Galle is accessible to large 
ships. 

Landing at the wharf, we enter the town through an old Dutch 
gateway, which bears the date 1669. The great strength of the fortifi- 
cations which the Dutch erected here, is a characteristic of their 
occupation. 

Galle was the port of the island. The Dutch had a big struggle 
to capture it from the Portuguese, and meant it to be impregnable 
for themselves. But " Tempora mutantur," and the glory of the old 
Point de Galle has waned before the greater facilities of the younger 
Colombo. 

To-day the old Dutch ramparts, which are pierced by that gateway, 
fonn a delightful promenade towards the sea. 

At the outset I said that we should find, notably here at GaJle, 
evidence of the Dutch occupation. Well, here is a street as much like 
an old Dutch town as I should think it is possible to find in the 
tropics. A street facing a canal, but the Dutch people are replaced 
by the dark-brown Cingalese natives. 

Our journey now takes us along the inland country roads. At 
intervals we pass at the roadside strange-looking objects. 

They are ant>^hills, the home of colonies, or succeeding colonies, of 
ants. Ant-hills are of varying sizes, from a yard to twelve or fifteen 
feet high. It is always well to remain at a respectful distance from 
an antrhill, for not only can the tliousands of little creatures, whose 
home it is, be angry and make a formidable attack, but even when 
these ant-hills are deserted by the ants, their empty home is 
frequently appropriated by that deadly snake called the cobra. 

I heard of a native incautiously putting his hand into the opening 
of a deserted ant-hill to find some game he was hunting, and receiving 
a bite from a cobra, from the poison of which he died in two hours^ 
time. 

Continuing our way, we pass through a country village called 
Kekerawe, and it is a very fair specimen of the villages which have 
improved by clearing away the surrounding jungle. Notice the wide 
and excellently made high road, though here at Kekerawe we are far 
inland, and a long way from a large town. The huts are apparently 
very roughly constructed, but with their thatched roofs they make the 
village look very picturesque. (See page 6.) 

We note a better class hut; indeed, it is a homestead com- 
bined with the village shop, or " boutique," as they are termed. 

The walls and floor are of mud, the roof is of thatched palm leaves, 
and the front is opened or closed by means of wooden boards. 

The wants of the Cingalese are few — Nature being most bounti- 
ful — ^but such wants as they have are amply supplied by these village 
" boutiques." 

Of fireplaces, chimneys, and cooking ranges there are none. In 
this climate the cooking is done out in the open. Tou may 



6 _^ The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

often see Coolies preparing their evening meal after the 
day's work; their cooking utensils are raised on etones over a fire 
of wood. They knead the ball of rice in their hands, dip it into 
their curry stuffs, which they are clever at compounding, perhaps 
flavour it with dried fi«h, and so to their mouths. 

They thus live very dbeaply out of their earnings ; they lay them 
down to rest, on their palm-leaf mats for a bed, and are content. 

But the trouble comes when illness, or sickness unto death, appears. 

Of doctors and Government Hospitals, well administered, there are 
plenty. 

TTie more enlightened and educated Cingalese may avail themselves 
of them, but the average Coolie or labourer thinks they may do for 




VILLAGE OF KEKERAWB, CEVLON. 



[/;. IF.Af. 



the white man; he prefers to pin his faith to the Devil Dancers, whom 
I saw on several occasions going through their strange antics, to 
the accompaniment of tom-toms, and the jangling little bells with 
which their dress is adorned, and with a peculiar rythmic motion ; on 
one occasion especially, at Kandy by torchlight, at night, when the 
effect was most weird. 

One day I passed a hut with some hideous tom-toming and jangling 
Devil Dancers outside ; I asked my native guide the meaning of it, and 
he replied that he thought a woman was dying inside the hut, and it was 
to scare the evil spirits away. 

Poor soul! Yet these are facts, of the present age, among our 
fellow-subjects. 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 7 

But you perhaps ask me, how do we Europeans fare when travelling 
along these country roads, having only such roughly-constructed huts? 

I reply that at every fourteen miles the Government has placed 
buildings^ called '' rest-houaeB," intended primarily for Government 
service, but travellers can stay in them for three days at a fixed rate 
of charges. 

The rest-house at the little village of Nalande is one of the 
most prettily situated which we encountered, and it is a good specimen 
of these comfortable little hostelries erected by Government. 

Under the green shade of a large Tamarind tree is the rest-house ; 
it is a bungalow, and has a red tiled roof, so has the stable where our 
horses and bullock are stabled, for our luggage had to go in a small 
bullock hackery, or cart. 

The rest-house keeper is a Government servant. He is 
also the butler, waiter, housemaid, and chief cook, and it is really 
wonderful what he, and others like him, can do at very short notice. 

When you arrive, a fowl is killed, and you are presently regaled 
with chicken soup, chicken cutlets, roast fowl, grilled chicken, chicken 
* curry, and possibly chicken in some other f orm-—<5hickens are the great 
stand-by. 

His dress is characteristic, the long hair brushed back into a 
chignon behind, and a semi-circular tortoise shdl comb over the top 
of the head — it is universally worn by the Cingalese men — white 
jacket, and long camboy, which is like an elongated kilt. 

On our journey we pass the entrance gate of the important Buddhist 
Temple of Eelani. 

The buildings on the left are the rooms of the priests and their 
attendants — ^we might almost call them cloisters. 

We shall see more ancient and historic temples. I will therefore 
only add that this Kelani Temple dates from the fourteenth century. 

It is believed that Buddha visited the spot, and from here rose 
aloft into the air, and left the imprint of his foot on the mountain, 
whidi we shall see presently, Adam's Peak. 

But I want you to notice the great tree, at the left of the Kelani 
Temple, with its gigantic fruit. 

It is the Jak fruit, the largest of all edible fruits, each fruit 
weighing from forty to fifty pounds. They are pale green in colour 
with a granulated surface. 

A large tree will bear as many as eighty of these fruits ; Europeans 
do not seem to like the flavom-, but it is frequently used as an ingre- 
dient in the native curries. It is much relieved by elephants, and it 
seems an appropriate food for those huge beasts. 

Bananas are a great crop, and have a large consumption, con- 
sequently they are an important article of Ceylon commerce, although 
I do not think they are largely shipped, as they are, for example, 
in the West Indies. 

Bananas are brought by bullock cart to a station of the Ceylon 
Government Railway for consignment to the Colombo market. 

All this time we have been climbing higher, and higher, and 
higher, until we arrive at Nuwara Eliya, 6,240 ft. above sea level — *.«., 
nearly 2,000 ft. higher tEan our loftiest Scotch mountain, Ben Nevis. 

Nuwara Eliya is beautiful for situation, in an eliptical valley about 



8 The Jouimal of the Mancliester Geographical Society. 

eight miles in circumference, and Bunounded by mountains rising from 
a few hundred to two thousand feetw 

At this great altitude the pure mountain air is sharp and bracing, 
with a mean temperature of 67deg. Fah. 

Frosts are ocafiionally experienced, and one is glad of a blanket, 
and sometimes even of a fire I 

Think what this means so near to the equator I 

No wonder that Kuwara Elija is regarded as the sanatorium of 
the white man ! 

The jaded merchant of sweltering Colombo, the palo and languid 
victim of the sultry plains, and the Anglo-Indian, journey up the 
6,000 ft. to Nuwara Eliya here and find their appetite, and their energy 
and vigour retm-n, thanks to the bracing mountain air. 

The view of Nuwara Eliya, witti Lake Gregory in the foreground, 
has been compared to the western Highlands of Scotland, and to the 
Welsh mountains, and, by another recent writer, to UUswater. But 
what does interest us t>, that the dark green on those mountain slopes 
consists of acres upon acres of tea plantations. 

We visited a mountain-side tea plantation, and noted the regular 
lines of tea bushes. 

The variety of tea usually cultivated in Ceylon is the Assam, and 
a cross between the Assam and the China variety, called the Hybrid. 

The tea plantations must be kept thoroughly clean, and are 
generally weeded by contract, at the rate of Is. 4d. per month, and 
are thus kept almost entirely free from weeds and grass. 

The conical mountain peak emerging through the cloud in the 
distance fs the famous Adam's Peak, which rises to a height of 7,352 ft. 
above sea lev^, and is a conspicuous object for many miles. 

On the summit there is a mark supposed to resemble a gigaittio 
human foot-print, which the Mahommedans ascribe to the father of 
the human race, Adam, hence the name Adam's Peak. 

But Buddhists tell you that Buddha rose into the air from the 
Kelani Temple, where we saw the Jak friiit, and in passing left the 
impression of his foot on this mountain. 

Thus Adam's Peak is an object of deep veneration to the devotees 
of both religions, and they oome in pilgrim bands from all parts of 
Asia to climb, with much privation and hardship, that steep and 
rocky cone, for their souls' benefit. 

But to return to the tea: — 

The tea leaves, at the proper time, are picked by women and 
children. They rapidly gather in each hand a handful of young 
leaves which are then thrown with unerring aim, over their shoulders, 
into the large baskets which are suspended from the women's heads. 
The baskets, when full, hold about fourteen pounds weight. 

These women earn about 25 cents, equal to fourpence, a day, and 
many of them come long distances, even from India, to earn such high 
wages I 

The first young leaves give the "Orange Pekoes," and the older 
leaves the " Souchongs " and " Congos." 

The leaves, when plucked, are brought to the tea factory, and 
ever}' tea estate has its factory. 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 9 

We inapected the factory on the Naeeby tea estate near Nuw4ira 
Elija; new and up to date in all respects. In tiie factory the green 
leaves are carefully spread on large broad racks on the upper floor, 
where they are dried in a gentle current of warm, dry air; then they 
pass down through i^oots into the rolling machines on the ground 
floor, where they are twisted up into the rfiape so familiar to us all. 
Then sorting, grading, and packing has to be done, and the tea is 
ready for the customer. We brought home a small chest cf tea 
from this factory, and very good we found it. Ceylon, I am given 
to understand, now does a larger export trade in tea than China does. 

The tea buahes, left to themselves, would grow into trees eighteen 
or twenty feet high, but they are severely pruned at intervals of 
eighteen months or two years. They are thus kept, aa you see them, 
flat-topped bushes, about three feet high. 

Now travelling northwards for about sixty miles, and descending 
between four and five thousand feet (and I may say, in parenthesis, 
I checked off the altitudes as given in the books by my usual travelling 
companion, my pocket aneroid), we arrive at Kandy, the old capital 
of the later native Kings. 

We looked down on Kandy from, the mountain road to the east 
of the town. Below is the Lake of Kandy, an artificial sheet of water 
made by the last King of Kandy, in 1807, by forced labour. A con- 
spicuous object is the small, square island. Tennant says that 
on that island was the King's harem, and that he had the pleasing 
habit of inviting persons who had incurred his displeasure to visit 
that island, and of dropping them into the water when half-way across. 

But then this King was a cruel tyrant, and had got rid of his 
competitors to the throne by methods of barbarous torture. When 
retribution came in the English advance on Kandy, he ordered the 
head of the messenger who btought the news to be struck off. Another 
messenger, who brought the news of the dofeat of his troops, he 
ordered to be impaled alive; and then, when the English marched 
into Kandy and took possession, he precipitately fled. 

Situated in the midst of a regular amphitheatre of hills, the natural 
beauty of the position of Kandy renders it one of the most charming 
spots in an island abounding in lovely scenery. Professor Douglas 
Archibald decribes Kandy as "A casket of gems," "A roraance, a 
dream of what Nature can do." 

Projecting into the lake is the United Service Library, the scene 
of many historic meetings of the Ceylon Planters' Association, for- 
merly part of the palace of the native Kings. 

Behind is the famous Tooth Temple, probably the largest and 
richest Buddhist Temple in Ceylon. 

To the left is another Buddhist temple, and a Hindu temple. 

But, you ask me, what of Kandv itself? Where is the town? 

Well, Kandy has been so repeatedly captured and burned by the 
Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English, that, beyond these temples, 
there are no buildings of historic value or importance; consequently, 
Kandy consists of a congregation of low white houses, after the 
Oriental manner. 

The principal street of Kandy is Trincomalie Street, with its endless 
stream of natives, in raiment of many varied hues, passing to and fro. 



10 The Jou^nial oftlu Manchester Geographical Society, 

According to the census of 1901, the population of Kandj is 26,386, 
of which 13,740-^rather more than one-half — are Cingalese, 4,580 are 
Tamils, and onlj 400 are Europeans. 

To the right of Trincomalie Street is the Police Court, a building 
with white pillars. Behind the Police Court is St. Paul's Church, a 
red brick church with a square tower, the principal English church in 
Kandj. In that church I heard the Sunday service taken jointly by 
an English and a black clergyman, but out there you soon get URed 
to the ministrations of black parsons. The services are both in £n(;lish 
and in Cingalese. 

The handsome fountain in the foreground was erected by the 
planters of Ceylon to oommemorate the visit to Kandy, in 1875, of 
the King, then Prince of Wales. 

When the present Prince of Wales visited Kandy, in 1901, he held 
a grand reception of the Kandyan Chiefs in the Audience Hall, and it 
was a scene of as dazzling brilliance as, perhaps, the old pillars had 
ever previously witnessed. 

The pillars are of teak wood, richly carved, black with age, and are 
considered admirable specimens of florid Hindu architecture. 

Another striking scene of deep historic importance took place in 
this Audience Hall on the 2nd of March, 1815, when the last Kandyan 
King was formally deposed, and his dominions were vested in the 
British Crown. 

The ball is now used as an Assize Court, where the judges oome 
j)eriodically to hold criminal trials. 1 saw here, on the same day, a 
white jury and a coloured jury, and heard trials in progress in the 
three languages, English, Cingalese, and Tamil. 

I saw a typical Ceylon ox-cart coming away from the Kandy Market, 
the cart high and narrow, and closed in with palm-leaf thatch. The 
cattle are the Mysore humped breed, with long horns. (See page 11.) 

A pair of these animals can draw more than a ton of tea, or other 
produce, up a step incline, by the mere pressure of their humps against 
the cross-bar, which rests on their necks, and is attached in the centre 
to the pole of the cart. 

The Ceylon carter stands between the two animals, in which 
position he pokes, pushes, and pulls each animal in the way he wishes 
it to go. 

A favourite walk at Kandy, in the late afternoon, after the heat of 
the sun has passed, is round the lake, by the Lower Lake Road, a walk 
of some two miles or so. During the walk you see how delightfully 
and picturesquely the Kandy residents are able to place their bun- 
g-alows. 

The tiled roofs are carried forward, and supported by pillars, 
forming a cool and shady verandah, and affording ample pro- 
teotion from the heat of the blazing sun, or, as evening comes on, in 
which to sit and listen to the buzzing of myriads of winged insects, or 
watch the fire-flies' fairy lights flit sparkling through the trees. 

How steeply the hills rise from the lake ! With what a wealth of 
foliage the hill sides are clothed! What endless variety 1 All shades 
from bright green to russet brown ! 



Ceylon, xuith a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 



11 



Then, here and there^ graceful and feathery cocoa-nut palms over- 
hang the lake ; they are trees which love the water, and seem to lean 
affectionately towards it. 

In the neighbouring Perediniya Gardens, the Royal Botanical 
Gardens of the Government, we find some gigantic indiarrubber trees. 

The little plant with the bright green oval leaves, which we are 
accustomed to see in our conservatories, grows to this enormous size 
in its native climate. 

Owing to the great demand for indiarrubber for electrical purposes, 
and for the tyres of motor vehicles, the rubber trade has been lxK>ming. 
The Ceylon planter is alive to this, and is now cultivating, in large 
quantity, the Para rubber tree, originally brought from the Amazon 
valley, and, as far as I could see, with every prospect of success. 




CEYLON ox CART AT KANDY. 



[B.iy.M. 



In these Perediniya Gardens are some enormous clumps of giant 
bamboos. 

These are the malacca variety, and grow to a height of a hundred 
feet. 

Down below, on the right, is the great river of Kandv, the 
Mahaweliganga. 

The Mahaweliganga is here crossed by a very remarkable bridge, 
made entirely of yellow satin wood, which formerly was so plentiful 
that it was used for common building purposes. The bridge has a 
single span ol 205 feet, and there is neither nail nor bolt used in its 
construction, the whole of the massive wood work being merelv dove- 
tailed together. 



12 The JouinuU of the Maticliester Geographical Society. 

The river is Beventy feet below the arch, but at the burst of the 
monsoon such a torrent rolls down that the bridge clears the water 
by ten feet only. 

Hie bridge has stood the damp and tropical heat for nearly seventy 
years, but extensive repairs are in progress, and I fear that, ere 
long, it may become a historic memory. 

Familiar objects on the bank of the Mahaweliganga^ a name which 
signifies ''great sandy river," and it is by far the largest river in 
Ceylon — ^are some elephants. 

These elephants are, of course, tame, and are well looked after 
by their keepers. 

There are wild elephants in parts of the jungle remote from the 
haunts of men— sometimes they give trouble; for instance, while we 
were in Ceylon, a herd of wild elephants objected to the railway line 
which the Government is now making to the north of the island, and 
came at night and tore up and scattered the wooden sleepers, which 
the Coolie labourers had, with much toil, laid during the day. 

The elephant is not as much employed in Ceylon now as he was 
formerly, and as he still is in Burmah and parts of India. He has 
been ousted in Ceylon by the buffalo, who does all the work in the rice 
fields, and by the ox. 

Let us now visit the only buildings of antiquity in Kandy. An 
arched gateway leads to two small Hindu temples, one sacred 
to tbe god Nata and the other to the goddess Pattini, the goddess of 
Chastity. The gateway has curious figures carved upon it, the 
" Markara Torana," a group of divinities who watch the approach 
to a sacred place. 

Passing through the gateway, we enter a grove, where, in addition 
to the Hindu temples I have just mentioned, we find a bell-shaped 
shrine called a Dagoba, and nearly every Buddhist temple has its 
Dagoba. A Dagoba is a solid piece of brick or stone work, built 
round a relic of Buddha, however small that relic may be. 

The Dagobas are r^ularly painted white — this one is very small 
compared with the Dagobas of antiquity we are going to see. Before 
the Dagoba is a stone altar, on which the faithful lay their flower 
offerings, almost invariably the beautiful "Plumiera," with its pure 
creamy petals and yellow heart. 

From this, it is more generally called the " Temple Flower." These 
flower offerings are a great feature of Buddhist worcfcip. 

Beyond the ornamental wall is the famous Tooth Temple, of which 
let us now have a nearer view. (See page 13.) 

The Dalada Maligawa, or Temple of the Tooth, is a substantial 
building, dating from the fourteenth century, to contain the reputed 
tooth of Buddha, The temple stands in its own moat, like a baronial 
castle of feudal times. The moat swarms with tortoises, which swim 
to you readily to take any cnnnbs you may throw them. 

The Octagonal Tower, with its pointed roof, is called the Oriental 
Library, and contains a rare and valuable collection of the Buddhist 
Scriptures from the earliest times, written on Olas — ^prepared strips 
of leaf of the Talipot-palm — on which the letters are scratched with a 
I>ointcd iron stylus. 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 



13 



These Buddhist classiGS are oontiDuallj guarded by yellow-robed 
Buddhist priests. 

Let us pass round to the entrance of the temple. 

Note the elephants carved in relief on the stone panels — they are 
old Ceylon work — the elej^ant symbolising majesty and power. 

The two handsome bra^ lampe are modem, and were a gift from 
a former Governor, Sir William Gregory. 

At five o'clock in the morning the tooth worship begins, amid the 
most tremendous din that I think ever battered my ears, performed 
by black musicians (save the tenni) on tom-tom, conch, and flageolet. 

Let us face this music and enter, and see the relic, which is the 
object of veneration and worship to so many hundreds of thousands of 




TEMPLE OF THE TOOTH, AND DAGOBA, AT KANDY. 



[B.W.M, 



devout Buddhist pilgrims from all over Asia — ^I saw Buddhist pilgrims 
here even from far China. 

Within a large silver-gilt bell-shaped shrine are six shrines of 
similar shape, decreasing in size, all of pure gold, ornamented with 
cat's-eyes, rubies, pearls, and emeralds, the last two quite covered with 
square-cut rubies — the final one contains the sacred tooth. 

It is said to be one of Buddha's canine teeth, but it more resembles 
the tooth of a crocodile than the tooth of a human being; still, the 
faithful believe it genuina 

It is supported by twisted gold wire from the centre of a lotus 
flower of pure gold. 

At the festival of the Perahera, this tooth relic in its shrine is 
carried in procession through Kandy. T^e shrine is placed in the 



14 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Hociety. 

cauopied bowdah of a gorgeously caparisoned elephant; two 
smaller elephants, gaily decorated, are placed one on each 
side as an escort. These are followed by some forty more 
elephants, ridden by head men, their attendants holding oyer 
them gold and silver umbrellas. Then come deyil-dancers, throw- 
ing tthemselves into all possible contortions, to the most ear-splitting 
accompaniment of tom-toms, oonch-shells, brass cymbals, and shrill 
pipes. 

Altogether the most weird and barbaric procession imaginable. The 
festiyal of the Perahera has been thus celebrated for hundreds of years. 

The Kandy Tooth Temple carries us back to the fourteenth cen- 
tury, our mediaeval age, the time of Edward III. and the Black Prince, 
but it is a comparatively recent period as regards Ceylon ; for the 
history of Ceylon can be traced back for nearly six hundred years 
before Christ, and has handed down to us relics of antiquity which, in 
the estimation of some writers, rank only second to the antiquities of 
Egypt. 

To enable us to follow this better, let us look again at the map of 
Ceylon. We see Colombo, the modern capital, GaUe, Nuwara Eliya, 
Kandy among the mountains, and tea plantations. 

Further north, in the plain country, there are, here and there, 
irrigation reservoirs, or tanks, as they are called, and paddy, or rio© 
fields. 

Now let us take our retrospective glance, and compare the Ceylon 
we have seen with the Ceylon of 2,000 years ago. 

Then, when England was still imknown, when the early Britons 
were savages, stained with woad and clothed in skins, the whole 
prospect in Ceylon was one of fertility and resource. 

Five hundred and four years before Christ, Panduwasa, King of 
Ceylon, married a wife from the Indian Continent. 

Thifj princess was accompanied by a brother named Anuradha, who 
founded a city, named after him, Anuradhapura. Now, Anuradhapura 
attained great wealth and magnificence, and became the capital of 
the Ceylon of those remote times. 

The lofty palacee, temples, monasteries, and shrines of Anuradha- 
pura covered an area of many square miles, thousands of people passed 
to and fro through her streets; also numbers of elephants, in whose 
gilded howdahs were seated nobles in gorgeous silk apparel. 

Such was the splendid city of Anuradhapura two thousand years 
ago ; to-day we wander through her scattered ruins. 

Anuradhapura was, and still is, the sacred city of Buddhism ; her 
magnificence was the outcome of Buddhist zeal. 

But perhaps you ask me — How do I know that these things 
were so 7 

I answer that there exists an ancient chronicle, commenced as far 
back as the year a.d. 460, by a Buddhist priest, or monk, named 
Mahanamo, uncle of the then reigning monarch. 

(This was about the period of the Saxon invasion of England under 
Henprist and Horsa, and about 400 years prior to the time of Alfred 
the Great.) 

That ancient chronicle is called *' The Mahawansa," a name which 
siprnifies " Genealoory of the Great." 



Ceylon, tvith a Eetroapective Glance, 1905. 15 

It 19 written in ancient Pali verse, and was a sealed book until 
1826, when Mr. George Tumour, a Ceylon civil servant, obtained a 
clue to its translation. According to Mr. Tiu-nour^s tranalation, the 
opening sentence of that ancient Buddhist monk's writing^runs thus :— ^ 

''Adoration to him, who is the deified, the sanctified, the 
omniscient, supreme Buddha !" 

** Having bowed down to the supreme Buddha, immaculate in 
purity, illustrious in descent, without suppression or exaggeration, I 
celebrate the Mahawansa !" 

He then goes on to describe the introduction of Buddhism into 
Cejlon, and to chronicle the piety, the majesty, and famous deeds of 
the succeeding Kings. 

Let us, then, with the Mahawansa as our guide, visit these spots, so 
sacred to the heart of the devout Buddhist : — Mihintale, Anuradhapura, 
Dambulla, Sigiri. And here let me say that the monuments them- 
selves since their symbols and inscriptions have become understand- 
able, confirm and corroborate the Mahawansa. 

Three hundred and seven years before Christ the son of the 
Emperor of India, the Prince Mahindo, was transported to the summit 
of a lofty mountain in Ceylon to be the Apostle of Buddhism to the 
Cingalese. The mountain took its name from the Prince Mahindo, 
and is called Mihintale. 

The Mihintale Mountain is so steep and abrupt as to be almost im- 
possible for an ordinary human being to climb. We must, therefore, 
ascend by very ancient steps, which the ruling powers placed here 
some 2,000 years ago. The steps ascend 1,000 feet to the top of 
the mountain. There are 1,840 steps, divided into three flights. 

Each step of the first, or bottom, flight is a granite slab, fifteen 
feet wide. 

The third and last flight of 160 steps is cut into the solid rock — 
as we ascend this last flight let us note that, according to the 
Mahawansa, the King of Ceylon, Tissa by name, was miraculously 
drawn, while hunting to the summit of this mountain, and there met 
Mahindo. As a result of this meeting with Mahindo, King Tissa and 
his Queen, and 40,000 of his subjects, embraced the Buddhist faith. 

Emerging from the steps, we find ourselves on the little plateau 
at the sununit of Mihintale. 

In the year 267 B.C. Mahindo, after preaching for forty 
years, retired to the summit of his mountain to die, smd a Dagoba, 
known as the Ambustala Dagoba, was erected over his ashes. 

It is said to stand on the exact spot where Tissa and Mahindo met 
It is twenty-three feet in diameter, and is surrounded by fifty slender 
octagonal pillars with sculptured capitals, probably part of an adjoin- 
ing shrine. 

The Kceaning prrassy hiU rising in the background is a huge mined 
Dagoba of wonderful antiquity. Buddha himself is believed to have 
visited this spot, and this great ruin, the Maha Seya Dagoba, is said 
to enshrine a single hair from Buddha's eyebrow 1 

It seems incredible that so vast a pile of brickwork, nearly 100 
feet high, should have been considered necessary to enshrine and 
safepuard so minute an object as a single hair ! 



16 Tke Jowimal of the Mancluster Geographical Society. 

For 2,000 years has this dagoba defied the destructive tooth of 
time! 

The trees on the summit are grown from seeds dropped bj 
birds in their flight. 

Mihintale is out of the regular path of tourists, and if you want 
to see it you must make an expedition on purpose. 

I will now describe how I managed to get there. 

I bought some oocoa-nut fibre rope, and with it lashed a chair, 
borrowed from the GoTomment Rest House, to two stout bamboo poles, 
and was thus carried shoulder high by a party of ten natives, who 
took turns of four at a time. An old man was responsible for my 
safety. He bossed my bearers, and shouted ordere to them in what 
seemed to my ears, yoluble gibberish. Hewaa the village joiner, and 
after paying up and dismissal I found that he had annexed my coooa- 
nut fibre ropes I 

He and the other men did the whole of the journey with bare feet. 

But let us return to the Mahawansa story. King lissa sent an 
embassy to the Emperor of India to request the gift of a branch of 
the sacred Bo-tree, under which Buddha sat when he attained 
Buddhahood. 

The branch was sent, and waa received with great state and cere- 
mony. It was planted with great rejoicing in the sacred city of 
Anuradhapura 246 years b.g. — ^Uiat is, 2,160 years ago. 

The branch grew into a tree, which has been carefully tended, and 
honoured with magnificent ceremonies by suocessive dynasties. 

It has been constantly guarded in its stone enclosure, in which are 
several images of Buddhk. 

Many of its broad leaves are to be seen lying on the ground. 
These fallen leaves are valued relics to the thousands of pilgrims who 
come here. 

It is probably the oldest historical tree living. We found the only 
worshippers on the day of our visit to be the monkeys which had 
taken possession of the tree and its enclosure. 

One day Mahindo said to EingTissa that they had no relic of the 
Buddha to which to make offeringfs, for, said he, " Wherever his relics 
are seen. Lord Buddha himself is seen." 

So Kinj? Tissa sent a great embassy to his friend the Indian Em- 
peror to beg that he would give the collar-bone of Buddha then in his 
possession for " the salvation of the land of Lanka," or Ceylon, King 
Tissa undertaking to build a " Thupa," or shrine, to contain the saored 
collar-bone. Kinpr TiFwa built the "Thuparama" Dagoba, which 
is charmingly situated in park-like land, in 307 B.C. ; it is therefore 
more than 2,200 years old. 

Of all the great Dagobaa at Anuradhapura this Thuparama is the 
most ancient, and the most venerated, and repays a close inspection. 

The Thuparama is placed on a circular brick platform, 160 feet 
in diameter. The platform is reached by two flights of broad 
stone steps. The rounded upright stones at the foot of 
each flipht have carved upon them in high relief armed figures, 
or guardians, called "dwarpals." The sharpness and clearness 
of the carvinjin' is wonderful indeed when you remember their eortra- 
opdinary antiquity. The height of the Dagoba is 63 feet, and its 



Ceylon, lulth a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 17 

diameter 40 feet. It is solid brickTvork, and is kept regularly 
painted, or whitewashed. And there is believed to repose BuddhaV 
collar-bone ! 

The Dagoba is surrounded by a number of slender and very graceful 
monolith pillars, with carved capitals. The duty performed by those 
pillars is rather a puzzle to antiquarians. Some believe that they 
supported a roof which covered the whole Dagoba; others believe 
that from the pillars were suspended garlands and strings of lamps, 
always a chief feature of Buddhist ceremonial ; while others think that 
the piUai'S were surmounted by emblematical figiires. 

Ferguson, in his handbook of architecture, says that the Thupa- 
rama " is older than any monument now existing on the Indian main- 
land." 

"When we remember that it was in its full magnificence 250 years 
before English history began with Julius Caesar, this Thuparama 
Dagoba is wonderful indeed. 

. King Tissa, not content with the Thuparama Dagoba, must needs 
still further show his piety by carving out of the solid rock a temple 
for 500 wealthy persona who had been ordained by Mabindo. 

Because these persons were " isuriunut," or wealthy, this rock- 
temple is called Isuruminiya. 

This is the oldest rock-temple of Ceylon. We shall see a larger 
one, but this is the oldest, and I think the most picturesque. 

Flights of steps lead to two terraces. 

From the upper terrace we pass through a painfully modem en- 
trance porch, with its red-tiled roof, into the ancient shrine in the 
heart ol the rock. In that excavated temple is a large image of 
Buddha, carved out of the living rook. 

The pond in the foreground is a " pokuna," or bath for ceremonial 
ablution. But it is now useless for that purpose because of the 
crocodiles whidi live in it, and which are fed by the priests. Notice 
the elephants carved out of the solid rock, and looking down into the 
pokuna. The elephant is a symbol of power and majesty. 

Tlie steps up to the shrine of the Isunmiiniya Temple are very 
interesting, as the sculptures upon them and at their sides are in 
such splendid preservation, although 2,000 years have elapsed since 
they were carved — ^the side-stones with their scroUs, and the dwarpals, 
or entrance guardians. 

"Hiese figures are repeated over and over again at Anuradhapura, 
at the entrance of every ancient Buddhist temple, monastery, and 
palace. 

King Tissa's grandson, Dutthagamini, came to the throne 164 
years b.c. But war was waged upon him by a powerful 
usurper. 

After several indecisive battles, the two leaders finally met in single 
combat under the walls of Anuradhapura. Each, mounted on a huge 
elephant, charged the other. The usurper was defeated and slain, 
and Dutthagamini was hailed King on the battlefield. 

Thereupon Dutthagamini determined to devot* the rest of his life 
to acts of reli prion. 

He first built the Loha Pasada, or Brazen Palace, for the accommo- 
dation of a colony of Buddhist monks. 



18 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

That remarkable building rested on 1,600 monolithic columns of 
granite, which are now all that remains. The colunma stand twelve 
feet iiigh out of the ground, and are arranged in lines of forty each 
way. They were probably coated with chunam, or copper. The 
pillars carried a building nine storeys in height, containing a thousand 
dormitories. The roof of this vast building was sheet copper, or 
brass; hence the name ''Brazen Palace." 

But Dutthagamini erected a more enduring religious building — 
a huge Dagoba, a hill of solid brickwork, in the interior of which is 
enshrined a model Bo-tree of silver and gold, and a golden image of 
Buddha, as well as some other treasures. Originally the Dagoba was 
veiy much higher than it now is. It wa« of true bell-ahape form, 
and pure white, being encrusted with a preparation of lime, cocoa- 
nut water, and the glutinous juice of the Para tree, and taking a 
polish nearly equal to marble. Such was the original magnificence 
of this Ruanweli (or Gold-dust) Dagoba, as it is called. 

Dutthagamini commenced tiie building 161 years B.C., 
but he did not live to see it finished ; it wa.s therefore completed by h\a 
bro-ther and successor, Saddha Tissa, 140 years B.C. The 
building occupied twenty-one years. 

This Dagoba was greatly injured and shortened by the invading 
Malabars in the year 1214 of our era; still, its present height is 150 
feet, with a diameter of 379 feet. 

The trees with which it is covered are grown from stray seeds. The 
white lines along it« surface are strings of prayer-flags. 

The restored face of the brickwork might, perha]>s, si^gest a 
factor)'. It is, however, an integral part of the Dagoba. 

Full details of the building and of its foundations — and these muat 
have ])een good, for there is no subsiding — are given in the Mahawansi. 

The Dagoba rises from a platform, paved with stone slabs, wide 
enough for an ambulatory. 

On the ambulatory platform are four great altars at each of the 
four cardinal points of the compass. Each altar is ornamented with 
numerous heads of elephants, symbols of might and majesty. 

On the same platform are some remarkable statues, which have 
been discovered during excavations. They are sculptured in dolomite. 
The four further statues are Buddhas, t.e., persons who have lived 
lives of such holiness and sanctity that they attained Buddhahood. 
They are represented in robes folded just as the Buddhist priests wfear 
their robes to-day. 

The nearest statue, ten feet high, wears no priestly robe — ^it is a 
kingly figure, the great monarch Dutthagamini himself — he who built 
the Brazen Palace and this huge Dagoba. Considering its great an- 
tiquity, some 2,000 years, it is a wonderful statue, and represents 
Dutthagamini as a man of great vigour and power. (See page 19.) 

When Dutthagamini was dying, so the Mahawansa teUs us, he was 
laid on this granite slab, so that his closing eyes might rest upon his 
last great work of piety, this great Ruanweli Dagoba. His attendants 
sought to solace him by an enumeration of his many pious acts, but he 
Raid to his favourite priest, who had been at his side in twenty-eight 
battles, " In times past, supported by thee, I engaged in battle; now. 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, IHOo, 



ID 



aingle-handed, I have commenced my conflict with death. I shall not 
be allowed to overcome this antagonist/' 

And so Duttha^amini, one of the greatest of Ceylon's ancient 
kings, passed away, but his great work is still eloquent of him. 

The pokuna, or bath» occurs almost as frequently as the shrine, 
or mcuafitery, in this wonderful old Buddhist city of Anuradhapura, and 
they are all constructed on a commensurate scale (some of them 
measuring as much as 150 feet by 60 feet and 25 feet in depth). 
They were evidently for ceremonial use. 




[E.W.M. 
ANURADHAPURA— RUANWELI DAGOBA AND DUTTHAvlAMINlS DEATH BED. 



It is believed that the pokuna, known as the King's bath, 
waa in remote* times roofed over. Nowadays, it is not used as a bath 
at all, but as a tank for drinking water. Near was a boy with a full 
jar upon his shoulder, and one thus sees how in this interesting old 
place the natives supply their huts with water, where pipes and taps 
are not known, and, consequently, are not missed The carved stone- 
work of antiquity flanking the steps leading down to the pokuna should 
be noticed. 



20 27t« Journal of the Manchester Oeographicai Society. 

We are visiting the antiquities in chronological order, and now, 
coming down a hundred years, we find another huge Dagoba, the 
largest in Ceylon. 

It waa erected eighty-nine years B.C. by King Walagam 
Bahu, to commemorate the recovery of his throne after his expulsioo 
of the Malabar invaders. 

Tliis Dagoba is called the '' Abhayagiria," which signifies " Moun- 
tain of Safety." It has a diameter ol 360 feet, and covers an area 
of eight acres, lis height was originally 405 feet, 50 feet higher than 
St Paul's Cathedral, in London I am told that it is possible to ascend 
to the interior of the pinnacle. 

This Abhayagiria Dagoba, a mass of solid brickwork, is, of its 
kind, the greatest monument in the world. Ruthless invaders and 
the hand of time have thrown down much of t^e brickwork. Beneath 
the debris are buried altars, statues, edifices. Here are two beautiful 
carved stones which excavations have revealed. Remember that the 
carvings are about 2,000 years old. We found a two-panelled stela 
from one of the altars. The upper panel has a male figure, the lower 
panel has a female figure, and it is interesting to note that she is wear- 
ing bangles, and perhaps not much else, thus showing the fashion of 
those remote ages. On the stone is carved a seven-headed cobra. 

Now it is believed that once, when Buddha was absorbed in his 
devotions, an immense snake — a oobra — came and extended its hood 
over him as a protection from the tropic sun. The oobra, then, is a 
sacred snake to Buddhists. 

The carving gives each of the seven heads a large hood. Notice, 
too, how well the carved stone reproduces the scaly skin of the snake. 

Again, coming down another 400 years, we have the Jetawanarama 
Dagoba, the third of these huge Dagobas, and probably the most 
massive of them all — ^not so high as Abhayagiria, but of the same 
diameter, viz., 360 feet — therefore, for its height, this Jetawanarama 
Dagoba has a more massive base. 

It was erected in the third century of our era by King Maha Sen, 
to mark his return to the Buddhist faith from the doctrines of the 
Schismatics. 

The height of this Jeta/wanarama Dacoba to the top of the spire 
is 249 feet, and it contains upwards of twenty million cubic feet 
of brickwork. The mind can scarcelv grasp this figure. Listen, then, 
to Sir Emerson Tennant's remarks on this Dagoba: — ^" Even with the 
facilities which modem invention supplies for economising labour, the 
building of such a mass would at present occupy 500 bricklayers from 
six to seven ycara, and involve an expenditure of at least a million 
sterling. The materials are sufficient to raise 8,000 houses, each with 
twenty feet frontage. They would line an ordinary railway tunnel 
twenty miles long, or form a wall one foot thick and ten feet high 
reaching from London to Edinburgh.'* Enormous trees hare oaten 
their way into the brickwork, to the veiy summit, and to-day troops 
of grey " wanderoo " monkeys seem to be the only devotees who 
frequent this holy place. 

The builder of the Jetawanarama Dagoba, Kinq: Maha Sen, built 
a magnificent palace, of which there only remains the entrance' to the 
Central Pavilion. But those entrance steps are wonderfully perfect. 



Ceylon, luith a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 21 

The carving is almost as clear and sharp aa if it were freeh from the 
sculpftor's chisel, yet 1,600 years have passed over it. 

The semi-circular step at the foot is called a moonstone. It consLsts 
of a series of concentric fillets. The three innermost fillets represent 
the bud, the loaf, and the flower of the lotus, then a scroll of lilies, 
then a semi-circle of the sacred goose, each carrying a lotus bud in its 
beak, then a scroll of flowers and leaves, then a procession of elephants, 
horses, lions, and bulls. There are thirteen animals in the procession. 
There are thirteen new moons in the year — thirteen moons, thirteen 
animals — Whence the name. Moonstone. The moonstones all have 
these thirteen animals. 




ANURADUAPURA— MOON-STONE, MAHA SEN'S P.WILIOX. [R.W.M 

This moonstone is so beautiful, so perfect, and so venerable a relio 
of by-gone ages, that I should like the authorities to put a railing 
round it to protect it. 

At present man and beast pass over it at will, and such traffic must 
tend to wear away the carving. 

About half a mile away is another moonstone. The carving is 
not so perfect, but you may see tliat it has the same thirteen 
animals. The steps lead into a Viliare, or temple long 
gone, but the carving left on the side of the upright stone gives a 
suggestion of what the great buildings were like all those hundreds of 
years ago. 

Now rapidly coming down through the centuries to a date about 
500 years later than the Jetawanarama Dagoba, and the famous 



22 Tlie Journal of the Manchester Geographical Socitiy. 

uioonsbone, we find a colossal sedent Buddha. Hie attitude is that 
in which Buddha is believed to have reached the elimination of ail 
things vile and human, or, as we might think it, to have readied 
annihilation ; but as the faithful express it, the attitude in which the 
LfOrd Buddha attained Buddhahood. 

The statue is a granite monolith, eight feet high, whidi meana, of 
course, that if it had been standing on its feet, with the same propor- 
tions, it would have been about sixteen feet high. 

For a thousand years has this Buddha thus been sitting by the side 
of a jungle road, watching the strange vicissitudes of Anuradhapura, 
an object of very deep veneration to pilgrims, who lay their offerings 
of temple flowers, the plumiera, on the small altar stone. 

Close to the Sedent Buddha is the Lankarama Dagoba, which brings 
U9 down another 350 years, to the middle of the twelfth century of 
our era, to our Plantagenet times. 

Of the ancient Dagobas of Anuradhapura this Lankarama is the 
youngest. 

The Thuparania, the first we saw, is the oldest, being more than 
2,000 years old. This Lankarama is not fully 800 years old, there 
being nearly 1,500 years between them. 

You see, then, how we have skipped down the ages in visiting these 
ancient and very remarkable Buddhist shrines. 

This Lankarama, though the smallest of them, is, in some respects, 
the most perfect. 

The three circles of monolithic pillars remain, showing the extent 
of the former temple. The carved designs on the capitals of the pillars 
aref still exquisite, notwithstanding their hoary age. 

This is the last of these remarkable monuments which we visit, 
and in quitting them let me again quote Sir Emerson Tennant: — 

"Such are the Dagobas of Anuradhapura — structures whose stu- 
pendouR dimensions, and the waste and misapplication of labour 
lavished on them, are hardly outdone even in the instance of the 
P3Tamids of Eprypt." 

I have already related to you how King Walagam Bahu built the 
huge Abhayagiria Dagoba to commemorate the recovery of his 
kingdom fix)m the Malabars. 

Durinp: their invasion this Kino: was forced to seek safety in flight, 
and to hide in dens and caves of the rooks. 

When, after fifteen years, he retrained his throne, he transformed 
many of these rocky caves into elaborate twnples, the most notable 
among them being the Rock Temple of Dambulla, 

The Rock of Dambulla, dark and formidable-looking, is so precipi- 
tous that there scaroely seems foothold for a ^oat, and, indeed, on this 
side it is almost inaccessible to man— «n unlikely spot, you would say, 
for a temple. But if wo wind round to the left for upwards of a mile, 
we find a place where we can ascend. 

I found the climb over the smooth surface of the rock, imder the 
tropic sun, rather tedious and toilsome, notwithstanding that I was 
nnn-in-arm with a native guide. 

The climb broug:lit us to the entrances to the Temple caves, 
surrounded by the " Pansalas," or priests* dwellinjxs. 



Ceylon, ivitk a Retrospect ivti Glance, 1905. 23 

We see here a priest holding one of the door-keys nearly two feet 
long. 

See how the roofs have been recessed into the surface of the rock, 
which rises sheer overhead to a great height. The recessing is to 
protect the roof from the rains, which >at times descend like a torrent. 

Lighting our candles, the priest unlocks the door, and we pass 
into the Hock Temple of Dambulla. This great cavo measures IGO 
feet by 50 feet. The greatest heiglit is about 23 feet, the roof sloping 
downwards to the back of the cave, where it is only ifour feet high. 

Burrows writes: — "The first impression is very striking, the 
coolness, the gloom, the circle of sedent Buddhafi dimly visible by the 
candle-light, and the death-like silence, combine to produce a super- 
stitious feeling which the true believers translate into reverence." 

Notice the painted roof — a great sedeat Buddha in glory, wor- 
shipped by the gods — above these, rows of Buddhas. 

This cave contains no less than fifty-three statues, most of them 
exceeding life size. 

We come to another sacred ix>ck about twenty-two miles north of 
DambuUa, the last two and a half miles being through thick jungle, 
and across the bed of a river, a path so difficult that I had to be 
carried on men's shoulders — too rough a path for Mrs. Mellor to 
accompany me. 

Here square abrupt rocks stand out boldly on the top of the hill. 

Here, in this wild and secluded spot, is a Buddhist temple, not a 
cave-temple, but a temple roofless, and open to the sky. (See page 24.) 

From one of the rocks an enormous upright figure of Buddha has 
been carved. It measures 33 feet 3 inches from its pedestal. The 
exj)ression of the face and the pose of the figure suggest the idea 
of majesty and repose. Compare the colossal height of the Buddha 
with that of the Cingalese man, standing in the foreground; each 
of its feet is six feet long. This wonderful rock-carving is beautifully 
executed. The statue is only attached to the rock from which it is 
hewn by a narrow strip at the back. Every detail of the limbs, and 
the robe with its numerous folds, is sharp and accurate. 

The Buddhist priests wear their yellow robes to-day draped and 
folded, just as their ancient carved Buddha does. 

Notice the few prayer -flags waving from their sticks in front of the 
giant figure, the outpouring of some devout heart to its god in stone. 

How feeble such acts of worship seem I But how well they illus- 
trate the impotence of all things human with that which is sublime 1 

Thus has this graven image held its steadfast gaze towards the 
east and the rising sun while many centuries have rolled by. 

Now, about 1,500 yeaa-sago, in a.d. 470, the King Dhatu Sen had 
two sons, Kasyapa and Mogallhna. Khsyapa, the eldest son, con- 
spired against his father, and, raising the standard of rebellion, 
seized the King's person. Kasyapa carried his royal father, stripped 
naked and in chains, to Anuradhapura, the capital, and there mur- 
dered him by building him up alive in the recces of a wall. 

Mogallana, the second son, fled to India out of his brother 
Kasyapa's way. 

But parricide proved an insecure foundation for dominion. 
Kasyapa, rendered unpopular by his crimes, feared to live in the 



24 The Jourtuil of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

open capital, and retired out into the distant , jungle, to the great 
cylindrical rock of Sigiriya, whidi rises abruptly from the surrounding 
plain to a height of 400 feet. On the top of that rock Kksyapa con- 
structed a palace and a fortress, or citadel, of brick wdiLs of enonnous 
massivenees, considerable portions of which remain to this day. Hie 
warm red tone of the inaccessible rock of Sigiriya, the depth of its 
forest, the wonderful reflections of its 'lake, added to the strange 
history, combine to make this one of the most romantic and fascinat- 
ing spots in beautiful Ceylon. 




CKYL0N-C0L0S8AL ROCK BUDDHA. 



[E.W.U. 



The monk who wrote the Mabawansa was a contemporary of Dhatu 
Sen and his parricido son, Kksyapa; he therefore wrote and described 
what he saw. He writes that the perpendicular sides of the rock 
mado thom impossible to climb, and that Kasyapa had a spiral gallery 
cut in the face of the rock, gradually rising from base to summit. 

High above the gallerj'- frescoes were painted, representing: Queens 
and Princesses of Kasya|xVs Court making offerings at a neighbouring 
shrine. Throughout the frescoes the Queens and Princesses are 
arranged in pairs. Considering their antiquity, upwards of 1,400 
years, the frescoes are in excellent preservation. It is a remarkable 



Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance, 1905. 25 

fact that only three colours are ujsed, yellow, red, and green. Blue 
seems to be entirely omitted, which is strange, as it was used for 
other painted work of this period. 

Having climbed up the Sigiriya Rock in the late afternoon, we get 
from that great height, just as the sun is about to set, a wide-spread- 
ing view over some hundreds of square miles in Ceylon. 

Stretching towards us from the distant hills is a wide expanse of 
cultivated land, rice fields, some tea and rubber plantations, and so 
forth. Then, coming nearer, is a large track of jungle and forest, 
within which lurk elephants, cheetahs, the deadly cobra, and many 
other wild creatures. From them I pick one example — ^wonderful 
little creatures which were living in the Ceylon of the ancients, and are 
living there to-day, and may, therefore, be said to link by-gone ages 
with the present. 

These are the leaf-inseots, known to the naturalist as " Phyllidse." 

They are a remarkable example of the way in which Nature affords 
safety and protection to her creatures by their environment. 

Iliese insects have so extraordinary a resemblance to the leaves and 
foliage which they inhabit, that they frequently escape detection, 
even by a practised eye. The bodies, wings, legs, and thighs of these 
insects accurately reproduce the colour, texture, and variation of the 
leaves which form their home. 

From this they are sometimes called "walking leaves." They 
are a marvellous work of an Almighty Creator. 

We brought home from Ceylon a group of leaf-insects, and I took 
a colour photograph of them after arriving in England. I am sorry 
to say the insects h.ave since come to grief, so I value the photograph. 
These insects are, of course, to be found in other tropical countries. 

There is much. Ladies and Gentlemen, upon which time would not 
allow us to touch this evening, e.g. — 

Who were the artists who designed, carried out, and wrought the 
sculpture of those very ancient shrines we have visited? 

Where was the stone and brick brought from? 

Then there is the commerce of Ceylon, also its flora and fauna, the 
bird-life in particular being very beautiful, and affording a large field 
of investigation. 

Then, too, moths and butterfiies are of immense variety and beauty. 

I can only hope that what you have seen and heard to-night may 
induce you to take a deeper interest in Ceylon, our premier Crown 
Colony. 

At all events, Ladies and Gentlemen, you will now have an idefi 
of what manner of land it is when you next sing that verso of the old 
missionary hymn : — 

"AVhat though the spicy breezes 

Blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle, 
Though every propect pleases, 

And only man is vile; 
In vain with lavish kindness 

The gifts of God are strown ; 
Tlie heathen, in his blindness, 

Bows down to wood and stone.'' 



2G The Journal of the Mancliester Geographical Society. 



\\ 



THE PUNJAB AND ITS PEOPLE. 

By Captain J. Stephenson, Indian Medical Seryioe. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, Hanchefiter, on 
Tuesday, January 23rd, 1906, at 7-80 p.m.] 

M^HE Puujab lies at the upper apex of India, between the 28th and 35th 
X parallels of latitude. Its capital town, Lahore, is on the same 
parallel as Jerusalem, Morocco, Charleston in the United States, and 
Shanghai, and a very little north of Cairo. The length of the Punjab 
is 550 miles, its greatest breadth about 600. On the west and north 
is the North-West Frontier Province, separated a year or two ago from 
the Punjab, and now possessing a separate administration of its own, 
under a Chief Commissioner, whose headquarters are at Peshawar. But 
since the Punjab to most people still continues to include the Frontier 
Province, and since I have myself spent at least as long a time on the 
Frontier as I have in what is now the Punjab, I propose, if you will 
allow me, to include some passing references to this area in what 
I have to say. The area, including the North-West Frontier Province 
and the various small native states comprised within it, is 150,000 
square miles, or not far from three times as large as England and 
Wales. 

Though thus of moderate size, the Punjab is a very small part of 
India. Peshawar is 1,500 miles from Bombay and 1,600 from Calcutta, 
or more than two days* continuous train journey from each — ^though 
neither Bombay nor Calcutta is by any means at the extremity of the 
Indian Continent. Let me just add, what is really very important, that, 
though part of India, the Punjab is not to be taken as representative 
of India as a whole. There is no one part of India which can in any 
way be taken as representative of India as a whole, and if there were, 
it would not be the Punjab. 

From the point of view of physical geography, the Punjab is, 
speaking broadly, a plain. This is the outstanding feature — ^that it is 
one flat expanse, extending, still unbroken, to the south-west into the 
sandy wastes of Sind, to the south into the equally barren desert of 
Rajputana, and in the south-east into the fertile plains of the Ganges 
and its tributaries. One can go on and on for hundreds of miles, 
meeting hardly any perceptible rise or fall. 

The plain, however, is bounded on two sides of its triangular extent 
by mountains; those on the north-east and north are some of the 
loftiest mountains in the world — the main chain of the Himalayas, 
whose summits reach far above the line of perpetual snow. These 
mountains are indeed the Punjab's most valuable — or rather invalu- 
able and absolutely priceless — ^possessions; for without the. mountains 
and their melting snows and the rains they condense there would be 
no rivers, and without the rivers no Punjab— or, at least, no Punjab as 



The Punjab and its People. 27 

we know it. The province is bounded on the north-west by another 
but a lower range, which has different names in different places, and 
divides it from Afghanistan. 

The statement that the Punjab is a plain is not literally true 
throughout; there are a few ranges of hills which run across it, or 
partly across it, towards the north, but none of these ever rise at any 
place to a height of 5,000 feet above sea level — say, 4,000 above the 
level of the plain. The Salt range is the best known and most 
important of these. 

But the glory of the Punjab is its rivers, the five rivers from 
which it takes its name. The earlier Aryan invaders counted seven ; 
they reckoned the Indus as one, and in those days there was another 
to the south, which has since dried up and now can hardly be traced 
even by its bed. Later conquerors, not thinking they had really 
entered the land until they had crossed the Indus, reckoned only five, 
and called the country, in the Persian language, Panj-ab — ^the five 
-waters. But, in any case, it is the rivers that have given it its name, 
and it is as the land of the five rivers that it is known through the 
world to-day. 

The main line of rail to the north crosses them all in succession, 
and the bridges are, on an average, about a mile long — some more, 
some less. As favourable points have, of course, been selected for the 
bridges, we get some idea of the breadth of the rivers in flood; at 
other places than those where the bridges are it is often enough, very 
much more than a mile. The country is flooded for large distances. 
This occurs in the hot months. The rivers begin to rise perceptibly 
about April, when some of the snow on the mountains begins to melt. 
It goes on through May, and through June ; and in July, as a rule, or 
perhaps in August, the height of the flood is reached. This is due to 
the rains, which now come to swell the volume of melted snow ; and 
though the rains go on till September the river has before then begun to 
fall. In the middle of the cold weather, and onward till March, however, 
tlie question one asks, on crossing the railway bridges in the train, is, 
** "Where is the river ? " There are miles of sands, and here and there 
a pool ; there is in some parts a rough sort of vegetation, and perhaps 
a herd of cows are grazing about. Finally, one comes on the river, often 
close under one bank ; often it seems not more than fifty yards across, 
and apparently not very deep either. 

In their order, from above down, the five rivers are the Jhelum, 
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The Ravi and Beas I know only from 
crossing them in the train ; the Jhelum, Chenab, and Sutlej I have seen 
each in various places and under varying conditions ; but since it is 
the Indus I know the best, we will take it as a sort of type, and say a 
little more about it. 

The adventurous traveller from this country usually crosses it at 
Attock, on his way to see Peshawar and the Khyber Pass. Here it is 
absolutely hemmed in by walls of rock, where it can only rise at flood 
time and not spread itself; it is comparatively narrow, and the current 
is proportionately strong. This has always been recognised as, on the 
whole, the most favourable place for passing the Indus, and is the one 
that has generally been used by invaders, from Alexander the Great 



28 The Jouimal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

downwards. The oonditions are similar at Khushalgarh, a little lower 
down, where a railway bridge is soon to replace the present bridge 
of boats. 

Let us skip down to Dera Ismail Khan. The breadth 
of the river is here always considerable, and a bridge of boats — 
a row of boats at short intervals, with planks laid across them 
and bridging over the intervals — provides for traffic till about 
the middle of May, when the river ia about a mile and a 
half across. After the middle of May the bridge is taken down and 
boats ply to and fro, the distance they have to go from side to side 
increasing every day as the river rises further. Take now a day m 
July, and come with me across the river. We will start at four 
in the morning, and go across express, with the mails. We drive 
do¥m to the landing-place, about a mile from the military cantonment, 
and get into a large flat-bottomed boat with square ends, which shoves 
off, and the men start rowing. It is seventeen miles from Dera 
Ismail Khan to the railway station on the other side of the river, and 
practically the whole seventeen miles is the river Indus; all, indeed, 
except barely a mile at each end. Having got out some distance 
from land, if the wind favours, the men will put up a sail; then 
perhaps row again; then, passing an island, they get out and walk 
along the bank to tow us ; if the current is running suitably at any 
place it may be enough to let the boat drift. To cut a long story 
short, we shall, oftener than not, be in time for the train at 2-30 In 
the afternoon. I fancy, though, that it is always necessary, in 
avoiding sandbanks, taking advantage of the wind, and so on, to do 
considerably more than the straight fifteen miles. Nine hours is the 
shortest I have done it in, and 13} the longest; though I own I have 
been fortunate, and at times people have been 24 hours in getting 
across, but that generally means they have been stuck on a sandbank. 
To say that one is for some time out of sight of land, will give some 
idea of what the river is. Perhaps I ought not to spoil this by saying 
that the river banks and country round hardly stand up at all above 
the water, and so are nob easily seen at long distances, especially as 
a certain amount of hot weather haze is the rule on the horizon. 

One day, I think, I shall always remember. The sun rose as we 
got on to the water, and what little coolness there had been in Uie 
dawn was over. Dera Ismail Khan is, according to thermometrical 
records (and, speaking from my own experience, I should be the last 
to quarrel with their accuracy), the hottest station of the Punjab, 
and 1898 was a hot year all over India. This was the end of June, 
and we shall see shortly what that means. I really do not wish to 
pile on the agony too much, but still it is within everybody's know- 
ledge that the heat of a hot day affects one more on the water than 
on land — as evidenced, for example, by the way the skin may peel 
off one's face afterwards — and you must remember, too, that there 
is no shade on an open boat. We stuck on a sandbank, and I and 
His Majesty's mails missed the train. On getting up to Bhakkar, the 
village where the railway station is, I found there was no punkah in 
the waiting-room, no soda water, and no ice, while chair and table 
and everything inside felt absolutely hot on touching them. There 
was only one train each way in twenty-four hours. However, it was 



The Punjab aiid its People, 29 

impossible to wait so loug in a hole like that, so I took the train 
in the opposite direction at half-past ten at night, and got round 
where I was going by a longer way. 

However, let me not be mijust even to Bhakkar. Later in the 
year, in September, I was crossing one evening in the reverse direction. 
The breath of coolness in the air, the white mosque and the date-palms, 
the women filling their water jars and carrying them away to their 
homes, the children shouting and playing, the yellow sandhills and 
broad river made up a very pretty picture. I crossed to and fro 
nine times that year — ^seven by water all the way, and only twice by 
the bridge of boats. 

So much, then, for the rivers of the Punjab; and this naturally 
leads me to say a few words about its irrigation canals — dependencies 
of the rivers one may call them — in which, indeed, the value of the 
rivers to the Punjab of to-day largely consists. 

Besides a very large number of small canals of no groat length 
which irrigate the land to a short distance on both sides of most of the 
great rivers, there are at least five much larger ones which carry water 
into the middle of the doabs — ^that is, the area included between two 
neighbouring rivers. The word ** doab " is, like " punjab," derived 
from the Persian, *' do " meaning two, while " ab," as before, means 
water; the compound thus means the land included between two 
waters. Each canal begins, of course, as a single large stream, from 
which branches soon arise, and these • divide and sub-divide and sub- 
divide again, the terminal twigs of the tree being only tiny rivulets. 
Even )the large parent stem would be unequal to providing water 
for all these at the same time, so the branches take the supply in turn 
for so many days, and in this way the whole area is adequately 
provided. The Jhelum canal comes off from the Jhelum, and waters 
a considerable portion of the area between the Jhelum and Chenab; 
similarly the Chenab canal in the next doab, one from Ravi between 
that river and the Sutlej, the great Sirhind canal from the Sutlej, 
and one from the Jumna, the boundary river between the Punjab and 
the United Provinces. The latest colossal project, which is just being 
begun, is the following; it depends on the fact that the Jhelum has 
still water to spare, while the land that now most urgently wants 
irrigating is south of the Ravi. A canal, ^to be called the Upper 
Jhelum canal, is to be constructed through Gujrat district, irrigating 
a portion of the country there, and discharging most of its water 
into the Chenab above the present origin of the Chenab canal. A 
similar canal will lead off from the Chenab high up, and will in 
great part empty itself into the Ravi ; then the Ravi will be able to 
furnish the necessary water for another canal to irrigate the portion 
of the doab to the south not reached by the Bari Doab canal. 

I can only just allude to the total transformation of millions of 
acres of country by means of these canals. Where previously the land 
was either altogether uncultivated, or dependent on uncertain and 
scanty showers for a poor harvest (precarious at that), the two 
yearly crops now oome forth with unfailing regularity, and the miles 
of bare brown earth, with here and there patches of scrub which feed 
only a few camels or a handful of goats, have given place to a sea 
of yellow wheat, green sugar cane, maize, or white cotton at their 



30 TUe Juarnal of tiie Manchester Geographical Society, 

respectiTe seasons. New villages everv mile or two, new market towns, 
new railroads, a new population, have all been established, almost 
as bj magic. 

The way in which these new areas are colonised is the following : 
The land, such of it as is waste, belongs to the Government ; a survey 
having been undertaken, it is marked out into "squares" — the 
'square" being the name of a definite area of a certain size. 
Colonisation officers, members of the Indian Civil Service, are appointed, 
and then the distribution of the squares begins. The squares of land 
are given free; the water is charged for according to the amount 
required by the agriculturists. Applications pour in from all and 
sundry, from every corner of the province, from all ranks. A certain 
amount of capital, enough to work the amount of land applied for, 
provide the necessary oxen, and pay for such menial labour as *8 
required, is, of course, essential ; then meritorious service for Govern- 
ment is taken into account, and the army of retired Government servants 
that spring up, of all grades and claases, is enormous ; then well-behaved 
and well-affected private people are often successful in obtaining a 
grant ; and there is always a whole army of petitioners whose fathers, 
uncles, grandfathers, wife's fathers, or ancestors of some kind were 
once in Government service, and hope that this may be considered 
a qualification for a grant. The charge for the water, though small, 
is in the aggregate sufficient to pay from 6 per cent to 12 per cent 
on the Government's capital outlay, of course, after providing for 
maintenance charges. 

And now you will agree with me, I think, that the Punjab is rightly 
named from its rivers ; and that without ita rivers the Punjab would 
not be the Punjab — ^not our Punjab as it is to-day. Of course, there 
are always croakers. One man said to me, " Of course, the canals 
are fine things, but the men of the Punjab are degenerating under 
this new regime. Before, when the land was barren, the wells used 
to have to be a hundred feet deep to reach the water, and the men 
could pull up buckets from that depth even, with all that weight of 
rope, and were hardy and strong, could walk all day in the sun and 
never tire." Of course, in a way, there is probably some truth in it ; 
anybody who did live in such inhospitable tracts would have to be 
exceptionally hardy — natural selection would see to that— or be 
wouldn't get a living out of it. 

My only grudge against the canals is that they spoil the rivers. 
I told you there was some difficulty about finding them in the middle 
of thoir miles of sand sometimes; and though partly due, as I also 
told you, to the season, it is also very largely due to these canals 
having boeu taken off. I was at Rupar once, the head works of the 
great Sirhind canal where it is taken off from the Sutlej just after it 
emerges from the lowest range of the Himalayas. The canal is 
splendid, but the river was left to trickle away into the west looking 
hardly larger than the Ribble. However, I floated down the canal 
that night and next day. and was in some measure compensated; 
if one river had been spoiled, another had been created. 

I must close my description of the lajid with a short account of the 
climate ; and, to take the best of it first, let us begin with the cold 
weather— with the beginning of the year. Perhaps I hardly need to 



The Punjab and its People, 31 

repeat what I said some time ago, that the Punjab is not synonymous 
with India; and nowhere does this apply with more force than iu 
the matter of climate. I have tried to find a comparison to fit the 
Punjab cold weather, but have had to give it up. It has a delight 
which is quite its own; while the nights are cold, the days are crisp, 
fine, clear and eunny ; the air is dry and exhilarating, and after the 
so-called Christmaa rains, which may come on any time in January — 
seldom later— -one may reckon on permanent fine weather for months. 
We have fires all day, and the nights may be cold, even as cold is 
reckoned here ; but even m January the sun is just pleasantly warm 
at mid-day and overcoats are used only in the evenings; every 
Englishman resident in the Punjab knows how necessary they are theu, 
for the great feature in the climate is the difference in temperature 
between the day and the night, sometimes indeed amounting to as 
much as close on 40 deg. 

To illustrate what this means, I take from the daily paper of, say, 
January 13th, the maximum and minimum temperatures registered 
in London during the past twenty-four hours, 51 deg. and 48 deg., 
only 3 deg. difference. The previous day had been a mild one. Now, 
I suppose that at Gujrat, my last station in the Punjab, the minimum 
was much the same, probably a little less. But I am quite certain that 
it would have felt much colder, going out at 5 a.m. say, in Gujrat than 
it would have done in London, and still more so if it had been a 
question of taking a drive in an open dogcart. The reason, of course, 
is simple — ^that the air is much drier in the Punjab, and hence evapora- 
tion from the surface of the body much more rapid, so that the 
cooling effect of evaporation has to be added to the effect of the 
coolness of the air. But now, in the early afternoon, in Gujrat there 
would have been a pleasant shade temperature of 70 deg. — warm 
enough to sit outside in the verandah in comfort. Then, too, the 
drop in the temperature at sunset in London is quite inappreciable; 
but, supposing the sun set at half-past five in Gujrat in the latter 
days of January, the drop in temperature between 5 and 6 o'clock will 
probably be about 15 deg., and Anglo-Indians talk a good deal about 
chills taken just at this time. 

March, of course, is hotter, and we give up fires, even at night, 
and towards the end of the month and early in April in the north we 
have our English fine, hot summer weather, still, however, tempered 
by cool nights, for there is always this fall of temperature after sunset. 

May needs a word. About the middle of the month we put up the 
punkahs and arrange for daily supplies of ice. We shut up the houses 
for the greater part of the day, and open them when the evening 
cool comes on. It is usual to begin sleeping outside in the open, or 
on the roof, for the nights are often fairly pleasant still. Dust-storms 
begin. Every few days perhaps the day will suddenly grow dark; 
if one is outside one sees a huge dark bank coming rapidly down on 
one from some quarter or other; the usual stillness of the air is 
within a few seconds changed to a whirling cloud of dust. One must 
take shelter somewhere if possible — even a native hut is better than 
nothing. If there is nothing at all, the only thing is to get under the 
lee of a tr^o and shut one's eyes. One of the worst dust-storms I have 
have seen came on us once when we were driving. Fortunately, the 



32 Tlie Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

horses were fairly quiet under it, but it was impossible to do more 
than draw up to the side of the road and sit where we were. Another 
time I was under the shelter of a tree, when a large tree not far off 
crashed down, and a large branch of the tree next to me fell across 
the road. Inside, of course, it is like night, and all lamps have to be 
lighted. In the worst dust-storms one can hardly see one's hand in 
front of one, and while it lasts it is as black as the worst London fog. 
Of course, there are all degrees of severity; fortunately the worst 
ones are not very common. In the sandy tracts — c.p., along the 
Indus — ^the dust-storm becomes rather a sand-storm. My wife and 
I were once, towards the beginning of the hot weather, making a tour 
in my district, and, having been marching for about ten days, were 
returning home by train, getting on at a wayside station in a rather 
remote part of my particular tract of country, and we just missed the 
train of the day before. There was only one in every twenty-four 
hours, and the explanation of its having been twenty-three hours late 
was that there had been a violent dust-storm or sand-storm further 
down the line near the Indus, and the sand had so drifted on to the 
rails for a considerable distance as to block the line. 

In early June the actual temperature reaches its height; the 
heat is, I need not say. something altogether unknown in temperate 
climates. A maximum of 120deg. or thereabouts in the shade is 
reached every year in the hotter stations ; though, after all, there is 
not much difference between one place and another. In hot years 
as much as 125 deg. is registered. To go out in the middle of the 
day from a house which has been kept fairly cool is like suddenly 
facing a huge open furnace; but to men who are fairly strong it is 
by no means so imcomfortable aa it sounds — at least, I will say, to 
myself personally. The skin perspires freely, but the air is, in May 
and early June, so intensely dry that the moisture is quickly 
evaporated, and though one feels warm, yet one often is not so, over 
Uie greater part of one's body, at all. Walking facing a hot wind — 
a so-called furnace blast — if one puts his hand into his shirt and feels 
his chest, it may feel marble cold, so great is the cooling effect of 
the rapid evaporation. 

The daily maximum often begins to fall somewhat towards the 
end of June. But let no one be deceived into thinking that now his 
troubles are over; they are beginning. The air currwits now come 
from the south and herald the advent of the monsoon, the rainy 
season. They bring moisture — ^not yet to be deposited as rain, 
however — enough only to take away utterly the dryness of the air 
and replace it by a dampness and mugpfiness which makes the heat far 
more unendurable. From now till the rains are well established — 
often not \mtil the middle, or even end, of July — is the worst of the 
year. The nights are hot and muggy, too. The fall of temperature 
at sundown, by comparison with what it used to be, is so much less 
as to be hardly noticeable. I have often heard men aver that the 
temperature goes up at night — ^and so it feels. It never really does, 
however ; but what fall there is brings the humidity more nearly to 
the saturation point, and so the mugginess and general discomfort 
are actually more pronounced. Many people sleep badly; in fact, 
refreshing sleep, even outside, may be almost impossible for anylx)dy. 



The Funjab and its People, 33 

One awakes hot each morning again, with nothing but, as it seems* 
an interminable vista of such days to look forward to. Appetite often 
goes. The European drags himself about, but feels languid and washed 
out and tired of it all throughout the day. Nobody seems to have 
any energy. The temperature in the house is often from 95 deg. to 
lOOdeg. I once had it 103 deg. in my room — and that at midnight, 
too, when, with windows and doors open, one might have expected 
a little coolness. It is difficult quite to describe what this means; 
but you know that a comfortable temperature for a room is 65 deg. ; 
the difiFerenoe, then, is considerably more above the usual room tempera- 
ture than freezing-point is below it. 

One could go on piling up the agony. But read, instead, Kipling's 
sketch called '* The City of DreadfiU Night " (a description of Lahore, 
the capital of the Punjab, on a hotrweatiber night), or the story called, 
I think, " At the End of the Passage." Both these will provide you 
with a sufficiency of horrors. 

It depends on the amount of rain received as to whether the 
Punjab during August and half of September is simply a prolongation 
of the foregoing agony, or is somewhat improved. If rain falls in 
fair quantity and pretty regularly the temperature is so far reduced 
that, notwithstanding the moisture, the condition is on the whole 
materially improved. If little rain falls, the effect is merely to 
maintain the muggy, clammy, sticky, close feeling, with the heat 
almost as bad as before. The year before last was a very favourable 
sample indeed, and some August and September evenings, after rain, 
with the grass everywhere suddenly grown up green and tall, covering 
even the roads, the crops stretching away for miles, tall green maize 
and millet, taller and still greener sugar-cane, trees refreshed, natives 
all rejoicing in the prospect of a good harvest— one could almost 
think that India was a much-abused country, and there was nothing 
so terrible about it after all. 

And towards the end of September the welcome coolness of the 
nights and early mornings comes again, and, though the days are 
hot, life is bearable once more— very bearable in comparison with 
what has gone. Punkahs are taken down at the end of the month 
or early in October — earlier in the north than in the south — and by 
degrees we once more reach the cold weather. The rains come to 
an end before September is over, and there is a season of bright, 
clear, dry weather till the end of the year. Of all the months of the 
year, November is perhaps the most enjoyable — ^perfect English 
summer days — and more delightful than February or March, because 
there is no thought of coming hot weather to oppress one. 

But it is high time for me to come to the second division of my 
subject — the people of the Punjab. The population is about 28 
millions, or something over 150 to the square mile. As the Punjab 
includes large areaa of the border mountain tracts, and still comprises 
large waste tracts that have not yet been brought under cultivation, 
and many of which never can be, the fertile portions are comparatively 
thickly populated. 

The classification of the population is done by means of the 
religions of the people, and the main distinction that has to be got 
hold of is that between Hindus and Mohammedans. There is no 



3-l< I'lie Journal of the MancfiesUr Geographical Society 

term in geaeral use to denote the population as a wholei It sounds 
natural to say that the inhabitants of India are the Hindus, but this 
is not the meaning of the word " Hindu." ** Indians " would be the 
only word to denote them as a whole, but this is scarcely used. If 
one speaks of a Hindu, one means a man who is, at any rate nominally, 
an adherent of a certain religion, which we may call the Hindu 
religion, whose customs and social observances are different from those 
of other sects, and whose society is especially distinguished by the 
maintenance of the system of caste in all its rigidity. The Moham- 
medans are, of course, followers of Mohammed, who believe the Koran, 
perform certain religious observances peculiar to themselves, and 
observe the same code, rites, and ceremonies as the Arabs, Persians, 
Turks, etc. Mohammedan society has— originally and theoretically 
at any rate — no caste, and no caste rules and observances. Hindus 
form 37 per cent of the population, Mohammedans 55 per cent^ the 
remainder being Sikhs, outcasts of various kinds, Parseee, Europeans, 
etc. Of some of these we shall have more to say. The Mohammedans, 
then, are the more numerous, and the Hindus form little more than 
a third of the population. This is in the Punjab only ; taking India 
as a whole, Hindus are in the great majority. 

At the risk of being a little tedious, I must still further accentuate 
this distinction between Hindus and Mohammedans. So important is 
it in the social life of the people, that very soon, if one comes into 
any sort of contact with the people, one begins to appreciate its 
significance, and before long one has acquired the mental attitude 
of the people themselves. Thus, if a man is mentioned, the first 
question, and the first classification of him, is as to whether he is a 
Hindu or Mohammedan. If one hears his name one knows immediately. 
Hindu names are Sanscrit, Mohammedan are Persian or Arabic, and 
it would be simply unthinkable for a Hindu to have an Arabic — (.e., a 
Mohammedan — name, and vice versd. If one sees them, one can in 
an ordinary case tell immediately by clothes, or manner of cutting 
hair or beard; in many cases even their accent is distinctive. A 
Hindu, of course, will never eat with a Mohammedan, or a Moham- 
medan with a Hindu. Friendships between the two are rare; close 
friendships, I should say, almost unknown. And this is in strong 
contrast to the native's attitude towards his own co-religionists, ana 
more especially towards those of his own caste, if he be a Hindu— or 
tribe or family, if he be a Mohammedan. This intense clannishness 
is one of the greatest obstacles in administration — ^this desire to shield, 
or to back up and help, those of their own family, or caste, or 
religion — and the feeling is, of course, stronger the narrower the 
circle; the claim of a caste-fellow, for example, would be stronger 
than that of a co-religionist of some other caste. Alpiost the last 
instance—^an instance in a very minor way — ^with which I had to deal 
was with reference to a hospital assistant, in charge of a small 
Government hospital in my district, and his compounder, who was 
under his orders. The hospital assistant was a Hindu, the compounder 
a Mohammedan. They got on very badly together, and each made 
charges against the other, which I went out to try to settle. In this 
village was a wealthy and respectable native gentleman — in fact, he 
was the chief man in those parts — ^whom I knew personally, and liked. 



The Punjab and its People. 35 

He sent me an invitation to his house, to come and rest and have 
some toa. I went, and though I dislike native tea, drank it manfully. 
The conversation, of course, turned on the object of my visit, and 
this gentleman, who was a Mohammedan, was strenuous in praise of 
the compoimder, who, he said, was very badly treated by the hospital 
assistant. The compounder was, he said, hard working, of good 
character, popular, and, so far as he could presume to judge, com- 
petent; the hospital assistant, of course, was the reverse. The point 
is that, while what he said of the hospital assistant in a bad sense 
was, I found, perfectly true, he had tried to mislead me utterly 
respecting his co-religionist, the compounder. He was not at the 
hospital when I arrived — ^there was his previous day's work undone, 
his dispensary vilely untidy — and, when he turned up in answer to 
my summons, he came in a very stupid condition with a huge black 
eye, the result of a brawl some little time previously. There were 
other things, too. The big man knew the village politics to the 
bottom, of course; yet he had tried his best to shield his fellow- 
Mohammedan, and had even wanted me to promise him, before any 
investigation, that he should not be punished. 

It is, I confess, a little difficult to understand this separation — 
this more than separation — ^this antagonism, between the two divisions 
of the people. You know that the north of India was, a few centuries 
ago and down to fairly recent times, a Mohammedan empire, con- 
quered originally by men of Turkish race, who came down from 
Central Asia. And it has been thought that the two peoples are 
racially different — the Mohammedans descended from the invaders, 
the Hindus from the original inhabitants. But the invaders were 
nothing like as many as the original inhabitants in numbers, while 
the Mohanunedans of the Punjab are more numerous now than the 
Hindus, and the races have certainly not kept themselves so distinct 
in past times as now. To begin with, the conquerors began by freely 
raarrying the women of the land, as usual in such cases. There is 
no doubt that the large majority of Mohammedans in the Punjab, 
and the majority of those elsewhere in India too, (notably in Bengal) 
owe their present religion to conversion — that is, to the conversion cf 
their ancestors from Hinduism to Mohammedanism — ^in the centuries 
preceding the last. The antagonism, then, is not one of race. 
Further, it would seem that the vast majority of the inhabitants, 
whether Mohammedan or Hindu, hold their religious convictions much 
too lightly to make them the ground of an all-pervading factor in 
their lives — a factor which makes its presence felt from hour to hour 
through every day. The simple villagers certainly care much less 
about these things, but really the antagonism seems to have become, 
in: the case of townspeople, a stereotyped sort of thing, and to be due 
nowadays to tradition and education more than anything else. 

Beyond this there is very little that can truthfully be said in 
general terms of the people of the Punjab. It is not much good to 
try to generalise, even if we disregard, as we are doing at present, 
such distinct peoples as the Pathans of the frontier, the Dogras of the 
lower Himalayas, the Sikhs — ^who once were the masters of the whole 
Punjab — and aliens, who, like the Parsee and the Bengali, also find 
their way in some numbers to the Punjab. Englishmen, unless they 



36 The JoiimoU ot iJie Alanche^er Geographical Hocltty, 

take a little trouble, sometimee do not succeed in knowing well the 
better classes of Indian society, and many people have come back 
to this country from India with ideas of its people drawn mostly from 
the servant class and the class of small shopkeepers in the bazaar — 
both, on the whole, unfavourable samples, from whom it is unfair to 
generalise. But perhaps one trait, which is, unfortimately fairly 
general, it may not be unjust to mention-^that of a certain m^ital 
obliqui^. In its mildest form it shows itself in the native gentleman 
who has some favour to aak — ^probably for a poor relative — ^who comes 
to see you, and talks for ten minutes or quarter of an hour— the 
usual length of an ordinary visit of courtesy— on general subjects. 
You know, however, that something is still to come, so, as if preparing 
to conclude the interview, you perhaps say, ** Is there anything more t " 
when, with many apologies and deferential phrases, out it comes. 
Bluntness is absolutely abhorrent to most of them; in some cases 
it grows into lack of straightforwardness; an unwillingness to tell 
the whole of a tale straightforwardly; a desire, it might seem, 
to work in an atmosphere of mystery and intrigue and half lights and 
wire-pulling — ^to get somebody to speak to somebody else, with the 
idea of influencing some third person, usually an official — ^instead of 
going with a plain tale to the official himself in the first place. The 
countless times I have been asked, by persons who previously did 
not know me, for an introduction, or even some words of reoom- 
mendation, to another official who was certainly no more unknown to 
them than I had been 1 Their absolute trust in ** influence " and 
'' recommendations " towards the obtaining of some appointment — 
their apparent total inability to see the impossibility, and the wrong- 
ness, of one's recommending a person for a post for which he is quite 
unfitted ! It is in their eyes a kindness, and a virtue, to do it^-4iow 
can it be wrong? The times, too, that people have sought my acquaint- 
ance, and cultivated it for even months, before coming to the point — 
the point they had in their mind's eye from the first day 1 

One may mention here, too, the universal system of " commissions." 
Your cook charges you more for your provisions than he pays; your 
head servant buys a tin of kerosene oil in the bazaar, and similarly 
makes a few pence out of it. You think, perhaps, to escape by paying 
the shopkeeper direct, and so tell him to come at the month's end 
and present his bill. It is absolutely to no purpose; you pay him 
the whole amount just the same, and if you watch him as he is going 
away you will see him in collusion with your servant, giving him the 
amount he would otherwise have obtained for himself. Even if the 
servant has nothing to do with the transaction, the effect is exactly 
the same. In the matter of the grain for your horses, for example, 
you call the grain merchant, any one you please, and give your 
instructions, and then personally pay the bill at the month's end. 
The rates charged will, of course, be the usual bazaar rates, fixed 
every week by one of the civil officers of the district ; but the syce — 
the native groom — ^pockets his perquisite all the same. All this is, 
of course, by no means unknown in this country, but it is not such 
a universally and openly recognised thing. It is not so very long 
since a servant of mine came to complain to me concerning a shop- 
keeper. I had given the servant the amount of the bill to pay over. 



The Punjab and its People, 37 

He had, as usual, offered the 90 per cent or so of the full amount, 
in exchange, as he thought, for the receipted bill which he would have 
brought back to me. For some reason or other there was a hitch; 
the shopkeeper refused to receipt the bill without receiving the full 
sum, and the servant came to complain, and to ask me to make 
the man give him his usual conmiission. And just as the lack of 
straightforwardness in speech slips by degrees into lying, so the system 
of ** commissions " slips into bribery. But lying and bribery are not 
peculiar to any nation, and the only thing that need be noticed is 
that to Eastern nations in general bribery is not on the whole as 
abhorrent as it is to us. A judge who takes bribes is not, to the 
generality of the people, such a villain as he appears to us. The 
average standard of morality on this point is in India generally-* — ^for 
this does not apply with special force to the Punjab — lower than it 
is with us. 

If, on the other hand, I were to say that the general standard of 
courtesy is higher, I should perhaps find it difficult to prove. That is, 
however, my very distinct impression. I know, in the first place, of 
course, that the languages of the East abound in words and titles of 
courtesy, and that the beginning of an ordinary native letter contains 
several lines of high-sounding terms and titles of endearment, which 
are largely a matter of form; that self-depreciation, too, before 
superiors or equals is common — so common as to have become a 
matter of form also, just like the other titles of honour. The ordinary- 
native, of a grade above the menial class — not, perhaps, the real self- 
respecting gentleman — ^will positively weary you with flattery, not 
delicately conveyed, but laid on with a trowel. These things show 
nothing. Then there is to be taken into acooimt the fact that the 
Ck)vemment and the rulers and those in authority have almost always 
in the East obtained more respect, and even awe, than in the West ; 
and a part of the courtesy one receives must be laid at the door of 
one's official position. But I have come in contact, more certainly than 
the majority of Englishmen in India, with the Punjabi villager, the 
simple and absolutely unlettered agriculturist, and I have not neglected 
either various opportunities of coming to know the real native gentle- 
man, who wishes nothing from one, who has himself an independent 
position, and who has a family pride which keeps him self-respecting 
before the highest — ^and I cannot but think that, in their common 
intercourse with each other, as well as with Europeans — ^not in words 
only, but in graceful and kindly acts as well — the natives of the 
Punjab compare, class for class, by no means unfavourably with 
ourselves, while the village population, I am sure, have distinctly the 
advantage. 

One subject I can hardly pass over altogether, and that is the 
position of women. And here, again, any general features that dis- 
tinguish the people of the Punjab are just as much characteristic of 
Eastern nations at large; so very broad our lines have to be if we 
attempt to say anjrthing in general terms, anything that shall be 
applicable, without innumerable reservations, to our proper subject. 
Beyond saying that the estimation in which women are held is lower 
than prevails in Europe or America, I must confine myself to the way 
in which this shows itself most noticeably — the general veiling and 



38 The Journal of the Marichester Geographical Society, 

seclusion of women. You know, of course, that this is common in the 
East. To find the origin of the custom we must go back to Arabia in 
the seventh century, when Mohammedanism had just been born. The 
Arabs before Mohammed knew nothing of the veil ; their conquests 
soon after Mohammed's death, however, introduced them, rough desert 
dwellers as they were, to the luxurious and decaying civilisation of 
Persia, Egypt, and Syria, where kings and lords secluded their 
nimaerous concubines under the guardianship of eunuchs. The Arabs 
largely adopted the civilisation of their conquered subjects; they 
found they were now themselves great lords, and a passage in the 
Koran was adopted by them as a defence of the system of the harem. 
This became the general practice of Mohammedans, and they carried 
it with them wherever they carried their conquests. And so it came 
to India. And, say the Hindus, the Hindus themsdves adopted it 
only because the Mohammedans had the custom — ^in self-defence, as 
it were — and partly perhaps because of Mohammedan tyranny. It 
certainly is no part of the Hindu religion, and I have never heard 
any other account of its adoption by the Hindus than that just 
mentioned. However that may be, there is practically little or no 
difference now between the two peoples. Not that the poor, of either 
sex, can carry it out ; the villagers in general make little attempt to 
do so among themselves, scarcely more if a stranger comes along; 
the women will perhaps turn aside their faces for an instant, just 
as the poor among the townswomen will sometimes turn and face the 
wall while you pass, or pull the border of their head covering a little 
over one side of their faces. Indeed, what can they do when they 
have to be out shopping, or drawing water from the well, or helping 
to winnow the grain? La the next grade of society the woman usually 
goe© out veiled in a '* burqa " — one of those extinguisher-shaped things 
of white calico of which you have seen pictures — swathing the whole 
of the head and body and reaching to the feet all round, with eyelet 
holes covered in by muslin or net of some sort to see through. Still 
higher in society, women seldom go out at all, and when they do it 
is in a covered palki (or palankeen), a sort of litter, carried by means 
of poles by four men. Many of the highest classes are practically 
prisoners in their houses and grounds. That the custom, in these days 
of the '' pax Britannica/' is an anachronism, is admitted by many 
Hindus, and by all who are educated in the Western sense; as far 
as they are concerned, it is a mark of respectability which they dare 
not dispense with. 

So much, then, for the bulk of the population. I can hardly do 
more than just mention, except in the case of the Sikhs, a few of the 
other peoples found in the Punjab, who go to make up the total; 
at present we have only accounted for about 92 per cent. The Pathans 
of the North-West Frontier Province are all Mohammedans, and so 
must be taken as already included; though, in truth, the difference 
between a Waziri from the Bannu border and his co-religionist^ the 
peaceful agriculturist of the plains, is as extreme a difference as is to 
be found anywhere within the North of India. Europeans are about 
'2 per cent, mainly the soldiers of British regiments stationed in the 
various military cantonments ; native Christians, '075 per cent. There 
are also a few Buddhists (mainly in the Himalayas) and a few Para 



The Punjab and its People, 39 

Th6 remaining 6*6 per cent are the Sikhs, about whom a few words 
in conclusion. 

The Sikhs are a religious sect, of Hindu origin, who trace the 
foundation of their faith to a man called Nanak, an itinerant preacher 
who lived in the 15th century. On his death he appointed his successor, 
who was to be, as he had been himself, the centre of the disciples and 
the maintainor of the new religion— a religion which rejected the 
polytheism of the Hindus, taught the existence of one God, the 
abolition of caste, and the obligation of leading a pure life. Thus, 
in succession, ten gurus — ^that is, leaders — ^headed the faith, the last 
of them being Guru Govind Singh, who died in 17Q8. Guru Govind 
Singh refused to appoint a successor, saying that in their sacred 
book — a collection of hymns and spiritual sayings composed by many 
of his predecessors, in part also by himself — ^they should find all 
necessary light and leading. He encouraged them to arm against 
their Mohammedan oppressors, and meet tyranny by oounter-force, 
and to him is largely due the Sikh tradition of themselves as a military 
race, which is still maintained. The Sikhs continued to exist as a 
religious and military organisation without any single head, but under 
a number of petty chiefs, till in the early part of last century, some 
time after the fall of the Mohammedan power, Ranjit Singh con- 
solidated them again, under himself as their temporal head, and 
brought almost the whole Punjab under his sway. The disorder that 
again obtained on Ranjit Singh's death, and the ill-advised counsels 
that prevailed, led to the two Sikh wars, in which the Sikh soldiers 
fought with all, and more than all, their former bravery. The English 
slowly progressed towards victory and conquest; but fortune alter- 
nated, and when the battle of Chilianwala, in which the English lost 
2,400 officers and men, besides four guns and the colours of three 
regiments, was claimed as a victory, the then Viceroy, Lord Dalhousie, 
exclaimed, " A few more such victories as this will lose us the Empire " 
(the Indian Empire). It was, in truth, essentially a defeat, and Lord 
Gough, the general in command, was ordered from England to give 
up the command ; but before the orders could reach him he had fought 
and brilliantly won the battle of Gujrat, which finally gave the Punjab 
to England. 

The two most distinctive characteristics of the Sikhs, to Europeans, 
are their rejection of the use of tobacco in any form, and their custom 
of never cutting or shaving their hair, whether of face or head. The 
long hair of their heads they coil up underneath their turbans, pinning 
it together by a wooden comb ; it is usual also for them to twist up 
their long beards on each side of their faces just in front of their ears, 
so that it is held in place by the turban, underneath which the 
ends of the beard on each side are tucked. A Sikh is thus, as a rule, 
readily distinguishable, the long beard often marking him out even 
where the peculiar way of disposing of it is not adopted. 

There is no need for me, in speaking to any body of Englishmen, 
to praise the loyalty of the Sikhs. Only eight years intervened between 
the conquest of the Punjab and the Indian Mutiny ; but during the 
Mutiny the newly-raised Sikh regiments never wavered, and were 
indeed a tower of strength on the British side. Their bravery it. is 
equally superfluous for me to dwell upon, whether in China, or in the 



40 The Joui^cd of the Manchester Geographical Society, 

Soudan, or in our frontier wars, in which, time after time, the Sikhs 
have shown their prowess. The fate of the heroes of Saraghari is 
known and honoured whereyer the history of our frontier campaigns 
is read ; and no officer of the Indian Army will ever desire anything 
better than to go into action backed up by the Sikhs of the Ptmjab. 

Well, gentlemen, auch, roughly and in outline, is the Punjab, and 
such are its people. I wish I could have amplified further what I 
have said, and I wish especially I could have had time to illustrate 
it by, as it were, taking you with me on a toiu* over ground where I 
have often been, through the last district of which I had charge; 
and I had got together and arranged all my notes for this, which 
was to have been a third division of my pi^er, before I recognised 
that it was absolutely hopeless to attempt anything of the kind in 
the time. 

Travellers ur© notoriously talkative, if anybody can be got to 
listen, and the exigencies of Government service have led to my, 
nolens volens, doing a large amount of travelling up and down the 
Punjab. The conditions of life are very different now from what they 
were in the days of Sa'di, a medinval poet of Persia, who was asked, 
concerning his travels, *' And what, Sa'di, was the greatest of the 
wonders that you saw upon your travels?" To which he replied, 
'' Verily, the greatest of the wonders that I have seen was this, that 
I have come safe home again." But one can still see a glimmer of 
truth in two Arabic proverbs : "As safaru-s^eaqar" — ^^Travel is travail," 
to keep the pun; or, more literally, ' Travel is the fire of hell" — and 
that other one, ** As safaru-z-zafar " — '' Travel is victory," the victory 
over obstacles and difficulties. Of interest^ at least, new lands, new 
sights, new customs, new people must always be, and — ^^hether the 
place be the house roof on a hot night, with the jackals squealing 
below, or a piercing cold night on the frontier hills, when, on one of 
our little military expeditions, we sit huddled in great-coats round 
a camp fire ; or wandering for days and weeks together in tents over 
the Punjab plains ; or whether one be sleeping in the courtyard of a 
native serai, surrounded by grunting camels and their bales and their 
drivers, seventy miles from the nearest white man — ^the interest of 
the Punjab and one's affection for the land never fails, but always 
grows. The Arab poet says — 

" And 1 know not, when bound for the land of my quest, if my fortune shall be 
The good that 1 long for and seek, or the evil that seeketh for me " — 

and in the same spirit, if not the same words, we all, however 
unavailingly, must needs question the future when we leave our early 
associations to wander forth ; returning, we find, on looking back, that 
neither the good nor the evil has come unmixed; that evil has 
doubtless come, but that good has come too, and has surely reached 
us in much greater measure. 



Roman Remains, 41 



ROMAN REMAINS: THEIR WITNESS TO HISTORY. 

By Rev. S. Hailstone^ M.A. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall^ on Tue«iday, 
February 20th, 1906, at 7-30 p.m.] 

EVER since I accepted your kind invitation to lecture before your 
society I have been wondering at my temerity in choosing the 
subject of '' Roman Remains : Their Witness to History." It is a 
common saying that ** Foola rush in where angels fear to tread," and 
no doubt it is equally true that *' Tourists rush in where savants fear 
to tread/' and as it is said by Anglo-Indians that the longer you live 
in India the more you confess your ignorance of that country and its 
people, so those who know the Etemid City the best confess that they 
know it the least ; therefore I must preface my remarks this evening 
by asking the indulgence of this scientific society if at the close I am 
judged to have left unsaid those things which I ought to have said — 
and the reverse. 

First of all, I bear it in mind that this is a geographical society, 
and, as such, remind you that one of the chief elements in the making 
of Rome was its geographical position. At any rate, it was that which 
made it the centre in early days of the great empire which was formed 
around it, until its dominion became so world-wide as to suggest the 
substitution of other places as the seat of government under the later 
Emperors. If there be any truth in early legends, it was the situation 
of Rome which brought early Etruscan and Sabine settlers there and 
led the victors in each succeeding struggle to lay hold upon that 
particular spot and to become in turn Roman people. Its hills were 
were well adapted for purposes of defence, its river gave easy com- 
munication with the sea^ Its position in regard to Italy was central, 
so that we find Livy putting the following sentiments into the mouth 
of Camillus, the conqueror of Veii : ** Not without good cause both 
God and man chose this place for the building of this city: most 
healthy and wholesome hills : a very convenient and commodious river, 
to bring in corn and other fruits out of the inland parts, to receive 
provision and otiier victuals from the sea-coasts: the sea itself near 
enough for commodities, and not exposed and open by too much 
nearness to the dangers of foreign navies : the very heart and centre 
of all Italy, a place, as a man would say, * naturally made, and only 
for that city to grow and increase in.' " Thus, under the Emperor 
Trajan, Rome was, geographically speaking, the centre of gravity of 
the civilised world. You could measure equal distances from England 
to Rome and Rome to Jerusalem, or from Gibraltar to Rome and Rome 
to her Eastern extensions beyond the Danube; and all outlying 
quarters were brought into communication with the centre by means 
of the magnificent roads — ^triumphs of the engineering prenius of her 
civilisation. 



42 Tlie Journal of the Mancliester Geographical Society. 

The excavations of the Forum, which have now been carried on 
for some years — ^at the present time under the superintendence of 
Commendatore Boni, who did me the honour, on my visit in 1904, of 
showing me his most recent *' finds " — have yielded, and are yielding, 
most precious witness to ancient history. The picture now shown on 
the screen portrays for us a few of the most interesting memorials 
of the past; but only a few, for if we have walked along the ''Via 
Sacra" from the Coliseum and the Arch of Constantine we have 
passed under the Arch of Titus and left behind us, on our right, the 
site of the Temple of Venus and Roma, containing two shrines — one 
to Venus and the other to Roma iEtema^-designed by the Elmperor 
Hadrian, who removed the Arch of Titus to ita present site and 
destroyed the colossal Nero, the base of whose golden statue may still 
be seen close to the Coliseum. As we continued our walk along the 
Sacred Way, we marvelled at those gigantic ruins on our right of 
the Church or Basilica of Constantine — ^the three enormous arches, 
60 feet in span, still remaining — and close by the circular temple 
erected by Maxeutius in memory of his son Romulus, who died an 
infant. This temple is now a part of the Church of S. Cosmo e 
Damiano, as is also the Temple of the Sacred City. As we looked 
on our left hand the great Palatine Hill overshadowed us, with the 
bewildering remains on its summit of the magnificent palaces of the 
Emperors; while underneath, at the foot of the hill, was the House 
of the Vestals, of which much has been brought to light by recent 
excavations. The destruction of the buildings tenanted by the Vestal 
Virgins is due to Michael Angelo, who used the materials to a large 
extent in the building of S. Peter's. In the Temple of Vesta has 
lately been found the shrine, enclosed by brick walls embedded in 
concrete masonry, and numerous remains of sacrificial victims have 
come to light — sheep, oxen, and pigs — ^with vases, coins, and ether 
valuable relics. 

The Vestals were of such great consequence in Rome that they were 
housed with comfort and even magnificence ; their abode, which was 
built on the space created by cutting away the side of the Palatine 
Hill, resembling a cloistered building, constructed chiefly of marble, 
and adorned with statues of the Vestals. The outline of the small garden 
within the court still remains, and close by must have been the 
marble basin, which was kept filled with water probably from the 
Fountain of Egeria ; while in the temple itself were guarded the most 
sacred relics in Rome, such as the Palladium-— or some kind of figure 
of Pallas, said to have been brought from Troy by iEneas — the sceptre 
of Priam, possibly other significant objects, and, above idl things, the 
Sacred Fire— the symbol of the prime necessity of life, for without 
warmth life is impossible — ^which suggests to our minds what warn 
probably the earliest form of worship by the human race, viz., the 
sun. 

As we resume our stroll, we pass the shrine and fountain of 
Juturna, while in front of us rise the three famous Corinthian columns 
belonging to an early restoration, in a.d. 7, of the Temple of Castor 
and Pollux. The fountain, or Lacus Juturnin, was a square tank lined 
with marble. Herein were found an altar, with reliefs of Castor 
and Pollux, Diana, Jupiter and Leda, and in the 1901 excavations 



Rovian Remains, 43 

abundant remains of bottles and jugs, testifying to the use of this 
purest of springs for medicinal purposes. Recently discovered, and 
the subject of much archaeological discussion, is the early Christian 
Basilioa dose at hand. The date to which its erection ahould be 
assigned awaits definite solution, but in the mean time one can admire 
the beautiful remains of frescoes, mostly in the early Byzantine style, 
showing figures of the Saviour with saints, and Paul I. and 
other representations. Bending one's steps towards the right 
hand, in order to arrive at the scene which is before us on 
the screen, we pass the Temple and Rostra of Julius Caesar, 
erected by Augustus to the memory of his great uncle, on 
the spot where the Dictator's body was burned by the 
populace, and we can also distinguish the bases of the great Arch of 
Augustus. I will ask my hearers now to imagine themselves planted 
on the left side of this picture, looking round on this crowded scene 
of ruin — ^irreverently called the " dust heap " by some of our friends 
who live on the other side of the '* herring pond." On our left are 
the few stones which mark the site of the Basilica Julia, begun by 
Julius Cffisar and finished by Augustus, who dedicated it in honour 
of the sons of his daughter Julia. The building was used as a law 
court, and here Pliny the younger practised as an advocate and some- 
times the Emperor Trajan presided. On the pavement may be seen 
many " tabulae lusorise " or circular dice-tables cut in marble ; and 
hundreds of dice, precisely similar to modem ones, have been found 
near at hand. The Basilica Julia was constructed in the form of a 
nave, flanked on each side and end with a double portico in two 
storeys. From its roof Caligula was wont, for his amusement, to 
throw money, knives, and other things into the Forum, to give a 
scramble to the populace. Then on the extreme right of the picture 
is the site of the Basilica ^Emilia, so called after &e family which, 
in the persons of several members of it, founded, built, or restored 
it. It was the Exchange of ancient Rome. Cicero, in one of his 
letters, expresses astonishment at its glory and magnificence in the 
restoration of 64 B.C. — Caesar's rehabilitation of the Forum. The other 
basilica was then rising, and no doubt the two were intended to 
match — one the home of law, the other of commerce. Destroyed again 
in 14 B.C., it rose once more in greater grandeur than ever, at the 
expense of another member of the family, largely assisted by Augustus, 
until in a.d. 32 it became one of the most beautiful buildings in 
Rome, enriched by all the exquisite detail of the best period of Roman 
art. 

In the recent excavations many discoveries have been made. We 
shall have noticed before this the fine arch which stands in front of 
us — ^that of Septimus Severus^— erected by the Senate a.d. 203 in 
honour of that Emperor and his two sons, CaracaUa and Geta. The 
ardh is adorned with reliefs commemorating the victories of the 
Emperor in the East, and it is curious to observe the erasures made 
by Caracalla in the inscription after he had caused his brother Geta 
to be put to death, that part of the inscription which contained the 
word Geta having been obliterated. 

These eight Ionic columns are part of the Temple of Saturn, once 
the god of the Capitol. Here Pompey sat surrounded by guards 



44 Tlie Joainud of tlie Manchester Geogiuphical Society. 

listening to the orations which Cicero was delivering from the rostra, 
and received that personal appeal, " Te enim jam appello, et ea voce 
ut me exaudire possis." This Temple of Saturn originated the 
" Saturnalia," that feast of licence when (Seneca says) all Rome went 
mad. 

We are now standing in the centre of the Forum Romanum, the 
most classical spot of ancient Rome. It is, after all, only a small 
space, and one must realise that many of these temples, by the 
scanty ruins of which we are surrounded, were little more than 
beautiful shrines. It seems impossible to define the exact extent of 
this place, and the work of identification of the various buildings is 
made more difficult, not only by the succession of calamities, such 
as fire, earthquake, and the ravages of the enemy, but by the fact that 
the original level of the ancient soil lies 24 feet below that of to-day. 
Its origin goes back to the alliance of the Romans and Sabines, and 
was a mere marshy spot of neutral ground used as a meeting-place. 

Close to us, on our right, is the recently-discovered base of the 
shrine of Venus Cloacina, the Goddess of Purification, placed, suitably 
enough, almost directly above the Cloaca Maxima. 

Then, still further to our right — now the Church of S. Adriano — 
we recognise the site of the Curia or Senate House. Here was the 
Hall of Assembly in which the destinies of the world were controlled — 
built and rebuilt over and over again. In 1900 the pavement of the 
inner hall was laid bare, and, as Lanciani says, '* When we think that 
these very marble slabs have been trodden by all the ' viri clarissimi ' 
who took a share in the political life of Rome from the beginning of 
the fourth to the middle of the sixth century, who witnessed the agony 
and the lingering death of the queen of the world, who fought the 
great battles between Christianity and polytheism ; when we consider 
that these very steps were ascended and their very threshold crossed 
by S. Ambrose and Symmachus, by King Theodoric and Cassiodorus 
(and by all the illustrious figures of history), we cannot help being 
impressed." 

A most interesting discovery was made by Commendatore Boni 
during the progress of the excavation in the shape of the Niger Lapis^ 
a black marble pavement of slabs nine inches thick — slabs which 
probably came from the Pyrenees. It is thought that this was one 
of the most holy spots in Rome — ^possibly identified by the ancients 
with the grave of Romulus, which, Varro tells us, was aidorned by two 
sculptured lions. Further digging revealed beneath the pavement a 
base of tufo, having two parallel pedestals in the Etruscan style, a 
cone of tufogiallo (symbol of a presiding god), a ** stela" (inscribed in 
archaic language, giving laws relating to sacrifice), and then the base 
of a large altar — all of which remains were enveloped in sacrificial 
objects carefully disposed, such as beads, amphorse, statuettes, etc. 
Thus was fixed, quite within recent time«, the political centre of 
ancient Rome. 

Now let us direct our eyes to that great building which dominates 
tlie Forum as we look to the north-west, and, as we do so, the Column 
of Phocas crosses the line of vision. This is Byron's '' nameless column 
with a buried base"; no longer an accurate description since the 
unearthing of its pedestal. It is a monument of the fourth century, 



Roman Rernaini<. 45 

replaced by this to Phocas^ the Bjzantiiie Emperor, in the year 600. 
At the foot of this side of the Capitoline Hill, just behind the Arch of 
Seyerus, is the Temple of Concord, founded in 367 B.C. ; in front of 
us, the Temple of Vespasian, a.d. 94; and, furtJier to the left, the 
Porticus Deorum Consentium, a row of columns in front of a set of 
small chambers called the School of Xanthus, used by scribes and 
other officiaJs. BeneaUi the large edifice, crowned by the beautiful 
tower, are the remains of the ancient tabularium, dating perhaps from 
about 85 B.C. This building had three entrances (one still remaining) 
by which the visitor enters on n climb of sixty-five steps cut in the 
Capitoline rock, and reaches the hall above, now a part of the 
Museum. 

With this rapid survey of the greatest classical spot in the world, 
and having gathered a few testimonies to the history of ancient Rome, 
it behoves us, in our limited time, to turn our attention elsewhere, 
having taken before we leave a backward glance, and taking a route 
by the Saored Way through the Ardh of Titus towards the Coliseum. 
oil the screen is now shown what is thought by some to be the most 
beautiful relic of its kind in Rome. Its building is due to Domitian, 
who erected it to the glory of his brother Titus after the capture of 
Jerusaleui. It is of peculiar interest to Christians of all times, and 
not less abhorrent to Jews, who at one time purchased the liberty of 
not having to pass beneath it. As we all know, this is due to the 
bas^eliefsy which represent the conqueror bringing back among his 
spoils the most sacred objects of the Temple of Jerusalem. The 
sculpture, much mutilated, represents clearly enough the seven- 
branched candlestick, borne aloft on the shoulders of men in the 
triumphal procession of Titus. 

The Colisemn now looms large in the foreground, and, well known 
though the form of it, and even the history of it, may be to my 
audience, we could not consider '* Roman Remains " without a reference 
to it. But on our way — ^more or less — ^we must stop to admire the 
arch dedicated by the Senate and people of Rome to the Emperor 
Constantino after his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge — 
now the Ponte Molle. ''erhaDs the most noticeable po-nt is the 
insertion of the words, " By the inspiration of God," in the inscription. 
Whether this phrase was intended to harmonise with the new profession 
of faith of the first Christian Emperor, or whether it was ambiguous 
so as to fit either the old faith or the new, is an open question. This 
side of the arch shows us the upper reliefs referring to scenes in the 
life of the Emperor Trajan ; the lower, which are very much inferior, 
referring to Constantino; and the eight columns, seven of which are 
of the original giallo antico, the eighth having been taken to S. John 
Lateran by Clement VIII. and replaced by one of ordinary stone. 

We will now pause for a moment on the north side of this arch, 
and consider the Coliseum. This cone of brickwork represents the 
remains of the Meta Sudans, a fountain which was resorted to by 
the lower classes, who came from far and near to attend the shows in 
the great Flavian amphitheatre. On the north or north-east side of 
the great building we can see the four storeys of which it was 
originally composed, the whole forming a gigantic ellipse measuring 
externally 1,790 feet, with a length of 620 feet, a width of 525 feet, and 



4G TJie Joutmal of tite Mancliester Geographical Society. 

a height of 157 feet, and capable of accommodating about 50,000 
spectators. After the glories of Nero's golden house had vanished 
Vespasian began this wonderful building, laying its foundations on 
the site of Nero's fish pond. Titus finished it, and inaugurated it with 
a show, in which (Merivale says) some of the principal excitements 
were battles of cranes, with dwarfs representing pigmies; gladiatorial 
combats, in which even women took part; and (water being let into 
the arena) a searfight representing the combats of the Corinthians and 
Corcyraeans related by Thucydides. The subsequent history of the 
Coliseum is, first, the record of ever-increasing slaughter of beasts 
and men, to satisfy the thirsty lust for blood on the part of the 
debased onlookers, culminating in the finale to the gladiators' fight 
through the action of Telemachus, the Eastern monk (who, however, 
was stoned to death for his interference), in one of the best- 
authenticated martyi'doms in the person of S. Ignatius, Bishop of 
Antioch, the disciple of S. John and companion of S. 
Polycarp, and by tradition) the child specially blessed by 
our Saviour. He was devoured by lions let loose from 
the subterranean cages constructed for the animals who were 
to be used in the shows, and he died with these well-known words on 
his lips, ** I am as the grain of the field, and must be ground by the 
teeth of the lions, that I may become bread fit for His {i.e., God's) 
table." Until 1872 the memory of the Christians who were here roasted 
alive, torn to pieces by wild beasts, or beheaded was preserved by a 
tall cross erected on the spot of their martyrdom, and yearly the 
Via Crucis procession was held, and sermons preached. In the Middle 
Ages the Coliseum was included in the great Frangipani fortress which 
sheltered Pope Innocent 13. from the anti-Pope Anacletus II., and a 
portion of it was afterwards used as a hospital, as a meeting-place 
for those who practised the black art, and as a stone quarry. Its 
name is variously derived from Colossus alluding to its size, or from a 
colossal statue near by, and is first foimd in the writing of the 
Venerable Bede, quoting the words of Anglo-Saxon pilgrims: — 

" While stands the Golieeum, Borne shall stand. 
When faUs the Coliseum, Borne shall fall. 
And when Borne falls, the world." 

Comparatively little is left of the magnificence of ancient Rome. 
We can soon run through the catalogue of notable instances; the 
arches of Titus, Constantine, and Septimius Severus; the Baths of 
Caracalla; the Pantheon; the palaces on the Palatine HiU; the 
Mausoleum of Hadrian; the columns of Trajan and Marcus 
Aurelius; the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius; the round 
temple in the Piazza Bocca della Veritk; some ruins of aqueducts; 
two or three gates in the Aurelian walls; and, of course, 
the basilica of Constantine in the Forum. It would clearly be far 
beyond the scope of this lectiu'e to furnish the audience with a 
description of all, and the most noteworthy are therefore selected. 

We will now throw some pictures on the screen — ^first, of Hadrian's 
Mausoleum ; second, of the beautiful little temple in the Piazza Bocca 
della Veriti, ; and lastly, as a connecting link between classical and 
mediaeval Rome, the Pantheon. We approach the mausoleum by the 



Roman Remains, 47 

Pons iElius of Hadrian — now the Ponte S. Angelo — ^a bridge over 
the yellow waters of the Tiber, constructed as an approach to the 
tomb. As we pass on to the bridge, over which the mortal remains 
of at least six of the Roman Emperors have been borne, we notice 
the statues of S. Peter and S. Paul erected at its extremity by Pope 
Clement YII., and the fluttering angels, which have been called the 
" breezy maniacs of Bernini," and we are face to face with the huge, 
and in its present condition almost unsightly, mausoleum, or fortress, 
or castle, according to the historical period with which our thoughts 
are for the time occupied. In a.d. 130 Hadrian built it for his tomb, 
and in its finished condition it must have been a glorious thing to 
behold. It consisted of three storeys of Parian marble, adorned with 
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns, surmounted with statues of 
men and horses. It served as the sepulchre of Hadrian's adopted son, 
.Elius Verus (who predeceased him), Hadrian himself, Antoninus Pius, 
Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Septimus Severus, and Caracalla in 
A.D. 217. 

In the Middle Ages the history of Rome centred on this spot. 
The Goths, under AJaric, made their way into it. In 536 it was 
besieged by Yitiges, when the garrison threw down the statues and 
blocks of marble on the besiegers. It figures largely in the contest 
between Totila and Belisarius. Its present name, "The Castle of 
S. Angelo/' brings to our imagination the penitential procession^ in 
time of pestilence, organised and led by Pope Gregory the Great, who, 
when crossing the bridge and pla^e-stricken people were falling 
round him, saw a vision of an angel, high up in the blue sky of Rome, 
sheathing his sword. Ten or twenty years later Boniface IV. built a 
chapel on the summit dedicated to the archangel Michael, and a 
hundred years or more afterwards the chapel was destroyed and a 
colossal wooden angel took its place, which in its turn was succeeded 
by the present angel of bronze. Every form of human villainy has 
been transacted within the walls, including the murder of two Popes — 
Benedict VI. in 972 and John XIV. in 98f— -and, in fact, the mediaeval 
history of the Castle of S. Angelo is steeped in orime. 

This graceful little building with its Corinthian columns was 
formerly baown as the Temple of Vesta — ^it stands in the place called 
the Bocca della Veritk— because of the curious old mask which can 
be seen in the church close by, of which the mouth closed upon the 
hands of perjurers and liars. Here is a beautiful fountain, erected by 
Clement XI. in about 1718, now modernised, ard therefore injured, 
as indeed the whole of this quarter of Rome has been, by the hideous 
modern buildings, like so many boxes, which were erected in 
the building mania which attacked Roman people after the unification 
of Italy, when, in fact, modern Rome was to be a second Paris. This 
temple is in reality that of Mater Matuta, goddess of Dawn, and 
has been dedicated as a church, with the title of S. Maria del Sole. 
It will now be convenient, I think, as we pass from Rome Pagan to 
Rome Christian, to consider the most perfect Pagan building in the 
city, which has transferred its allegiance from the divinities of the 
old world and become a great Christian temple. 

Here before us we have the Pantheon, carrying us back to the year 
27 B.C., when it was built by M. Agrippa, as the inscription on the 



48 27t« Journal of Hie Manchester Geographical Society, 

frieze informs us, though it has undergone various rebuildings and 
restorations since that early period. The Pantheon can claim the 
worship of the human race for such a long period that it may be 
called unique. Christian altars and Christian rites succeeded to Pagan 
worship when the building was consecrated by Pope Boniface IV. in 
608. It is a rotunda, covered by a dome, in the centre of which is 
the aperture which alone lights the interior, through which the rain 
falls and the sun shines, suggesting to persons of imagination the 
prayers and vows of the faithful ascending to the heights of heaven 
unimpeded. S. Maria Rotonda, the present name of the Pantheon, 
is the Royal burying-place, and here lie the remains of Victor 
Emanuel II. and tiie martyred King Humbert. 

Following a quasi-historical method, and so deriving a justification 
for the title of this address as a " witness to history," we now take 
the road from the Coliseum to the Lateran, and enter the very early 
church of San Clemente, dear to the student of primitive ecclesiastical 
architecture; for among the four or five hundred churches of Rome 
there is not one, with perhaps the exception of S. Maria Antiqua, 
which is so rich in the details of Christian worship aa this of San 
Clcmento. Here we are standing upon a spot consecrated by the 
memory of one who was a companion of S. Paul — and, indeed, on 
the site of his family residence. You can see in this picture the 
earliest — and, to my mind, the best — arrangement for those who render 
the musical portions of the sacred services, called the sehola cantorum. 
The railed-in space is in the centre of the nave of nine bays, with 
its sixteen columns evidently taken from pagan buildings. All this 
part of the church was taken from a lower church dating from a 
period prior by many years to the twelfth century, the date of the 
upper chiurch. Beyond the schola cant arum in the raised chancel are 
the altar and an episcopal throne, and underneath the altar are the 
remains of S. Ignatius, martyred in the Coliseum. Below is the 
lower church, unearthed in 1857 by Father Mullooly, to his lasting 
credit, for at that time little interest was taken in archaeology by 
the Roman authorities. Here are early frescoes in almost perfect 
preservation, and pillars of rare marble. Still more strange is the 
third structure beneath this lower church, which may very well have 
been the house of Clement. Here is the quaint canopied porch leading 
into the quadriporticus from which the rear of the church is entered. 

At this point I must confess that the magnitude of my subject 
begins to weigh heavily, and I am conscious that this address is 
becoming too much of a guide-book description of the wonders of the 
Eternal City. But those of my audience who know Rome best wiU 
be the most lenient, and will bear with me while I exhibit a few 
pictures of some of the famous basilicas, before we arrive at the 
period of Michael Angelo, and observe his work in the Campidoglio, 
S. Peter's, and the Vatican. 

The history of the Lateran buildings is a long and intricate one. The 
site of the present church was originally occupied by the palace of 
the family of Lateranus, put to death by order of Nero at the same 
time as Seneca, his former tutor. Marcus Aurelius was bom here, 
and it became an Imperial Palace until the time of Constantine, who, 
in the ardour of his new faith, granted it to the Bishop of Rome 



Konian RcTnains. 49 

(Sylvester) and founded the church. Here the Popes resided until 
1308, when thej left for Avignon. This interior is the baptistery, in 
the font of which it is said, but erroneously, that Constantino was 
baptised ; with greater truth it may be added that Rienzi bathed in 
it before his public appearance as resuscitator of the ancient glories 
of Rome. Passing along the Piazza di San Giovanni, and noticing the 
oldest object in ^me, the Egyptian obelisk brought from Heliopolis 
by Constantino, and originally in the Circus Maximus, we arrive at 
the imposing facade which is one of the objects in the skyline from 
most of the heights generally visited for * bird's-eye" views. The 
fa^cuie has inde^ at a distance a fine effect; its enormous statues, 
perhaps too large for effect at close quarters, proclaim at once the 
dignity of the church which more than any other has been the scene 
of the great events in Papal history. Here came S. Francis of Assisi 
with his unkempt and ragged brothera to meet the imperial pomp 
of Pope Innocent III., craving sanction for the new Order. Here two 
great figures of ecclesiastical history met for the first time — S. 
Dominic and S. Francis. Here, in the Palace hard by, the Popes 
lived for 1,000 years. Here five (General Councils were held — and, 
did time permit^ the witness to history borne by this pile of buildings 
might be greatly prolonged. Ancient Rome has here contributed to 
Christian Rome in the shape of the central bronze doors under the 
grand portico ; for they were brought from the Curia or Senate House 
and placed here by Pope Alexander VII. The effect of the interior is 
quite disappointing. It is true that the church has been rebuilt at 
least four times, and that few stones, if any, of the work of 
Con6tantine--«t which it is said he laboiured witti his own hands — 
remain ; but the basHica has undergone incessant modern mutilations 
under Borromini, and the great blocks encased in marble and adorned 
with %ures really contain two of the ancient coliunns. The tabernacle, 
erected over an altar which encases the wooden table said to have 
been used by S. Peter in idie house of Pudens for celebrating Mass, is 
a Gothic structure of the fourteenth century, and here are preserved 
the skulls of S. Peter and S. Paul. 

The famous mosaic in the choir beyond represents a vision of the 
Saviour blessing the work of Constantino — Charts panting for the water 
brooks are, of course, the Saviour's disciples. On the left, 
the Blessed Virgin Mary blessing Pope Nicolas IV., S. 
Peter, and S. Paul with scralls; on the right, S. John the 
Baptist, S. John the Evangelist, and S. Andrew Here 
on this throne the Popes were installed; for, as Dean 
Stanley says, '*In the Lateran is the true Pontifical throne, on the 
platform of which are written the words, ' Haec est papalis sedes et 
pontificalis.' " Over the great church's front is inscribed the decree. 
Papal and Imperial, declaring it to be the mother and mistress of all 
churches. 

Far more beautiful in its present state is the Basilica of S. Maria 
Maggiore, originally founded in a.d. 322 to commemorate a miraculous 
fall of snow which covered this spot and no other on the 5th August ; 
and hence annually commemorated by the dropping of white rose 
leaves during High Mass in the Borghese Chapel. The rebuilding 
of this church was undertaken after the Coimcil of Ephesus, 



50 The Journal of the Mcmohester OeographicaL Society. 

whioh condemned the Neetorian heresy, and it was therefore dedicated 
to S. Maria Mater Dei, and establi^ed as a baailica, with a Porta 
Santa only opened by the Pope four times in a hundred years. As 
we approach the entrance we pass by a magnificent column, formerly 
a part of the Basilica of Constantine in the Forum, and we observe, 
as we enter, a statue of Philip IV. of Spain, who gave great treasures 
to the church ; as did also Ferdinand and Isabella, who presented the 
gold for the roof of the nave. 

This glorious interior— culminating in the beautiful baldacchino 
erected by Benedict XIY. in 1741, supported by porphyry columns 
enwreathed by gilt leaves — ^is surely ihe perfection of iiie Italian 
church. Forty-two columns of fine marble from Greece, mounted by 
a frieze of pictures in mosaic, support a lovely ceiling in golden panels. 
Amid a cloud of witness borne by this church to medinval history 
I will give you only one instance, and it shall be detailed in words 
better than my own : " On Christmaa Eve, 1075, the city of Rome was 
visited by a terrible tempest. Darkness brooded over the land, and 
the trembling spectators believed that the day of final judgment was 
about to dawn. In this war of the elements, however, two processions 
were seen advancing to the Church of S. Maria Maggiora At the 
head of one was the aged Hildebrand, conducting a few priests to 
worship at the shrine of the Mother of God. The other was preceded 
by Cencius, a Roman noble. At each pause in the tempest might be 
heard the hallelujahs of the worshippers, or the voice of the Pontiff 
pouring out benedictions on the little flock which knelt before him, 
when Cencius grasped his person, and some yet more daring ruffiian 
inflicted a wound on his forehead. Bound with cords, stripped of his 
sacred vestments, beaten, and subjected to the basest indignities, the 
venerable minister of Christ was carried to a fortified mansion within 
the walls of the city, again to be removed at daybreak to exile or 
death. Women were there, with women's sympathy and kindly offices, 
but they were rudely put aside, and a drawn sword was already aimed 
at the Pontiff's bosom, when the cries of a fierce multitude threatening 
to burn or batter down the house arrested the aim of the assassin. An 
arrow discharged from below reached and slew him. The walls rocked 
beneath the strokes of the maddened populace, and Cencius, falling 
at his prisoner's feet, became himself a suppliant for pardon and life. 
In profound silence, and with undisturbed serenity, Hildebrand had 
thus far submitted to their indignities. The occasional raising of his 
eyes towards heaven alone indicated his consciousness of them ; but 
to the supplication of his prostrate enemy he returned an instant and 
calm assurance of forgiveness. He rescued Cencius from the besiegers, 
and returned to complete the interrupted solemnities of S. Maria 
Maggiore." 

As the sovereigns of Spain were protectors of the Basilica of S. 
Maria Maggiore, so also, before the Reformation, were the English 
kings, of the church which we will now visit, S. Paul outside the 
walls. It is quite in the nature of a pilgrimage to get there, and 
once outside the Gate of S. Paul we travel along the road by which 
that apostle and S. Peter are said to have gone to their martrydom. 
Half way is a humble chapel, inscribed with these words, " In this 
place SS. Peter and Paul separated on their way to martyrdom. And 



Roman Remains, 51 

Paul said to Peter, ' Peaco be with thee, Foundation of the Church, 
Shepherd of the Flock of Christ.* And Peter said to Paul, ' Go in 
peace, Preacher of good tidings, and Guide of the Salyation of the 
Just/ " Passing for the moment this Basilica, we ought to travel 
along the lane which leads to the Tre Fontane, the scene of the 
execution of the Apostle Paul. Here, in a dismal, malarious, and 
swampy compound^ are three small churches, and a house for a few 
monks; one of the churches containing the three fountains which 
sprang out of the ground — according to the legend — at the three 
bumps which the head of the apostle made after it was severed from 
his body. 

Ajb we return to visit the modem Basilica — ^for, after the great fire 
in 1823, which left but few relics of the original building, the church 
wafl rebuilt, and opened by Pius IX. in 1854— we cannot but recall the 
legend of Plautilla, which weaved itself into the mind and belief of 
Christendom in early days. She was a Roman lady who hung upon 
the lips of the aposUe, and, weeping, took her place by the roadside 
as he passed to execution. She wore a veil, which the apostle requested 
her to lend to him to blind his eyes, promising that he would return, it 
after his death. She did so, and was astounded afterwards to receive 
agam the veil stained with the apostle's blood. 

This picture represents the imposing interior of S. Paolo, with 
its great nave (290 feet long) and its four lines of columns, with a 
cornice of mosaics with medallions of the Popes. The arch which 
separates the nave from the transept is a relic of the old basilica, and 
has important mosaics by Galla Placidia, sister of the Emperor 
HonoriuB in 440. 

This is the Gothic altar and canopy erected in 1280, with its fine 
colunm of red porphyry; and here may be seen and observed, as 
recalling another phase of sixteenth century history, the medallion of 
the Madonna, before which Ignatius Loyola with five companions made 
their vows in 1541, and set on foot the militant Society of Jesus. 

A. hasty glance at the interior of S. Maria Sopra Minerva will 
complete our recollections of Rome before we approach the sixteenth 
century and enter into the work of Michael Angelo, Raffaelle, and the 
great artists of their age. This is the only important Gothic church 
of Rome, built on the ruins of a temple of Minerva. It is very 
interesting by reason of its relics of art and history. Here, beneath the 
high altar, lie the remaina of S. Catherine of Siena, bom in 1347, 
and dedicated, at her own desire, from her earliest days to a life of 
Absolute denial of the world and devotion to religion. Here in the 
choir are the tombs of two famous Popes, Leo X. and Clement Vll., 
both of the Medici family, the former, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, 
during whose reign artists and poets flourished under his gay regime, 
amongst them being Raffaelle. Near at hand is the Dominican 
monastery where Bruno was condemned by the Inquisition and Galileo 
escaped by recantation. 

That great Pope, Sixtus V., had much to do with the rebuilding 
of Rome in his day. It was he who raised this obelisk in the 
magnificent Piazzo of S. Peter's — an obelisk which witnessed' the 
martyrdom of S. Peter and the horrible cruelties practised on the 
Christians by the Emperor Nero. It had been lying half -buried in 



52 The Journal of the Mcmche$ter Oeogrcyphical Society. 

the earth, when the Pope conceited the idea of raiBiiig it to its preseat 
position. It was considered an impossible task, but a young man, 
Domenico Fontana hj name, undertook the task, and just before the 
work commenced he begged a blessing from his maater the Pope, who 
granted his prayer, but also hinted that failure would be expiated 
by death. Amidst the breathless silence of the crowds assembled to 
watch the uplifting of the huge monolith the raising took place. 
When half way up there was a sudden stoppage, but a sailor from 
San Remo shouted, * Water the ropes." Fontana wisely took the 
hint, and in the end success awaited him. Ever since that time San 
Remo has been privileged to supply the palms for the procession at 
S. Peter's on Palm Sunday. Wliat a magnificent surprise awaits the 
visitor as he comes from narrow and dark streets and finds himself 
suddenly in this glorious piazza, with its fountains by Carlo Mademo 
copiously splashing water, and the lovely colonnade of Bernini (1667,^ 
stretching its arms round the scene as if to embrace those who come to 
worship at the shrine of Peter. 

Multitudes of steps bring us to the basilica itself, and the sensation 
on entering through one of the great bronze doors is simply that of 
bewilderment. Here you are in the largest church in the world, and 
as you gaze upwards you have a feeling that you yoiu*self and the 
rest of the human race are dwarfed into absolute insignificance. After 
being sufficiently humiliated the visitor crawls up to that great 
canopied altar under the dome, and he learns that the canopy itself 
is nearly 100 feet high ; while the dome above it, resting upon four 
enormous pillars, 78 yards in circimiference, soars up to heaven, with 
its four colossal statues of S. Longinus, S. Helena, S. Veronica, and 
S. Andrew. 

S. Peter's ds the creation of some of the greatest artists who have 
appeared on the stage of human life — ^Biichael Angelo and RaffaeUe, 
and in a lesser degree Bramante and Giacomo della Porta, employed 
by Sirtus V. to complete Michael Angelo's dome. In praising S. 
Peter's the great basilica which preceded it should not be forgotten. 
Creighton says, "No Bishop was ever so imtrue as was Julius 11. 
to his duty as keeper of the fabric of his church. The church which 
he strove to raise never met with the reverence which had been paid 
to the venerable building which he overthrew." But, anyhow, Julius II. 
in 1506 began the present church from the designs of Bramante, and 
after the interruption of the work from various causes in the ponti- 
ficates of Leo X. and Paul III., Michael Angelo was sent for by 
Julius III., and carried on the work till his death in 1663. Giacomo 
della Porta finished the dome, Carlo Maderno built the great fa^cide, 
and the church was dedicated by Pope Urban VIII. in 1626. 

We can only look closely at one feature of the interior, viz., the 
statue of S. Peter, of which Gregory II. is said to have written, 
'* Christ is my witness, that when I enter the temple of the Prince of 
the Apostles, and contemplate his image, I am filled with such emotion 
that tears roll down my cheeks like the rain from heaven." Formerly 
it was supposed to be the Capitoline Jupiter transformed into an 
Apostle, but the best authorities consider that it belongs to a much 
later date than the apostle himself. The toe of the right foot is much 
worn by the devotions of the faithful. 



Roman ReinaiTis. 63 

A beaAitiful view of the dome of S. Peter's from the gardens of 
the Yaticaa shall be our signal for entering that marvellous palace. 

At this corner of the colonnade we enter and mount the Scala 
Regia — ^a magnificent work of Bernini — having passed the Swiss 
Guard, whose picturesque costume was designed hj Michael Angelo. 
After mounting many steps we arrive at an entrance to the Sistine 
Chapel built for Sixtus IV. in 1473. Amidst many improvements in 
Rome the Sistine Chapel was the chief glory of the Pope. He 
summoned to Rome such artists as Ghirlandajo, Botticelli, Luca 
Signorelli, Perugino, Pinturricchio, and many others, and employed 
thein to decorate with frescoes the walls of his chapel. 

llie examination of these leads on the astonished beholder to the 
surpassing grandeur of the vaulting, which shows the most perfect 
work of Michael Angelo. The conception of the Almighty Creator in 
the various acts of His creation is so glorious, so unlike anything 
else, as to make the spectator sink into a reveiie of wonder and 
amazement that such genius could have resided in a human being. 
lliis ceiling was uncovered in 1512, and immediately became the 
artistic wonder of the age. . Of the '' Last Judgment,'^ by the same 
master, covering the wall over the altar, it is more difficult to speak. 
In its present condition it is blackened by age, and by the smoke of 
aJtar lights and incense, and it is somewhat unnatural to most people 
to praise its beauty. The figures, in every conceivable attitude, are 
(as some one has said) the creation of one who was above all else a 
sculptor. The conception and design are alike amazing, especially 
fir an artist who has passed the prime of life ; but yet he would be a 
bold man who would v^ntuie to criticise unfavourably this effort of 
genius, which took the master at least seven years to carry into 
effect. 

The Vatican Palace is enormous, as wo nil know. It is believed 
to contain some 11,000 chambers of different sizes. The glories of it, 
besides those which have been mentioned, ;)re the frescoes of Raffaelle, 
the picture galleries, and the sculpture galleries, both of which contain 
the masterpieces of art. Here is just one picture of a room decorated 
in the Raffaelle manner. This is the Salone di Costantino, decorated 
under Clement VII., a Medici Pope, in 1523. Raffaelle had prepared 
the drawings for the frescoes, but they were executed after his death 
by pupils. On the wall to the left of the picture is the " Battle of the 
Ponte MoUe " and the " Defeat of Maxentius," executed by Giulio 
Romano. Julius 13. chose this and three other rooms for his own 
use, and employed Raffaelle to decorate them. 

It would perhaps be worth while to see more of the work of 
Michael Angelo, and therefore I will place before you a picture of the 
monument of the Pope who discovered Michael Angelo and Raffaelle, 
viz., Pope Julius II. The whole is unfinished, and Julius II. is buried 
in S. Peter's, but the figure of Moses is Justly regarded as one of 
the noblest specimens of the sculptor's art. On either side are Rachel 
and Leah, also from the hand of Michael Angelo ; above are other 
figures by inferior artists, and, worst of all, the figure of the Pope 
himself. As to the Moses, it represents as much the character of 
Pope Julius as that of the great law-p:iver hiniself ; he looks as if he 
could rise up and dictate laws to the human race; the countenance is 



54 TIi£ JoumaZ of the Manche^r Oeogra/phioal Society, 

full of vigour, though there is the overhanging brow, which indicates 
a certain melancholy cast of thought; it always seems ill-«uited to 
its present position, if placed on some solitary detached spot 
it would command more attention and admiration. Then we have 
Michael Angelo's great buildings in the Campidoglio. The Palace of 
the Senators, originally built by Boniface IX. in 1389, was altered 
by Michael Angelo, who designed the other buildings of the Piazza — 
tlie Museo Capitolino, and the Palace of the Conservators. In the 
centre of the Piazza he wished to place the famous statue of Marcus 
Aurelius, which has only stood there since 1638, as the Canons of the 
Lateran were unwilling to part with a statue which was then supposed 
to represent their founder, Constantine. Now, however, it is the 
glory of the Piazza, and is unquestionably the most perfect ancient 
equestrian statue in existence. Matthew Arnold speaks of Marcus 
Aurelius as the most beautiful cliaracter in history, and refers to the 
wf^rds in the Emperor's own record of his life, when he says, " From 
;y mother I learnt piety and beneficence, and abstinence not only 
from evil deeds but from evil thoughts; and further, simplicity, in 
my way of living, far removed from the habits of the rich. From my 
tutor I learnt (hear it, ye tutors of princes) endurance of labour, and 
to want little, and to work with my own hands, and not to meddle 
with other people's affairs, and not to be ready to listen to slander.'' 
As we recall this testimony, and look attentively at this wonderful 
statue, we really feel inclined to add our small meed of homage not 
only to the artist, whoever he was, but to the royal and august ruler 
of men, whose character he here delineated. Such was Midiael 
Angelo's veneration for this statue that, having gazed fixedly at it 
for some time, he called upon the charger to walk. 

That great builder, Sixtus V., planned this beautiful flight of steps 
from the Piazza di Spagna, leading to the Church of Trinitk dei 
Monti, in front of which stands an obelisk which used to adorn the 
gardens of Sallust. This well-known locality used to be the resort 
of artists and artists' models, and is now made beautiful by the stalls 
of flowers ranged for sale round its lower steps; while the church 
received additional notoriety from the visit of Mendelssohn, who was 
so enraptured by the unseen choir of nuns and their singing that he 
composed some motets especially for them. 

And now this address may perhaps be fitly brought to a close by a 
rapid exhibition on the screen of a few of the principal fountains of 
Rome. T) my mind, there are few things which contribute more 
to the beauty of a great city than fountains. Their movement stirs 
the imagination, their colour varying so much in all the different 
lights of day and night, their suggestion of purity and cleanliness — all 
affect our minds, and raise them up from that gloom and heaviness 
which so often overtakes us. 

Rome is par excellence the city of fountains. It maintains its 
reputation at the present day. Here is a fountain, beautiful in design, 
fed by the Acqua Marcia, coming from the Sabine mountains in an 
aqueduct 56 miles long, constructed originally in B.o. 146, restored 
in 1869. 

Here is the more famous Trevi fountain, concerning which all 
writers on Rome have much to say. One especially, in speaking of 



Roman Remains. 55 

its design, declares that " some sculptor of Bernini's school has gone 
absolutely mad in marble." However that may be, the general effect 
is charming. The water gushes out from the mouths of tritons and 
sea monsters on all sides, while Neptune seems to be taking general 
oversight of their proceedings. The aqueduct which supplies the water 
is said to yield dally upwards of 13 million cubic feet of water. 

I am conscious, in conclusion, of having repeated an oft-told tale 
before my audience, some of whom very likely know the Eternal City 
far better than myself. But, as the Romans say, if you have cast a 
coin into the Trevi fountain at your last visit, nothing will prevent 
you from returning again. As for me— coin or no coin — ^there is no 
city which I would more willingly visit ov«* and over again than 
Rome, whose principal glories, or some of them, I have tried, very 
imperfectly, to make real to you to-night. 



The publication of these Notes on Rome in the Journal of the 
Society makes it necessary for me to acknowledge my indebtedness 
to such books as Augustus Hare's ** Walks in Rome " and Norwood 
Young's "Rome" in " MedisBval Towns." From these and other 
works on the subject my Notes for the Lecture were compiled. 



NEW BOOK. 

'* Geographical Glhanings." Part I., on Some Methods of Teaching 
Geography. Part II., on the Preparation and Teaching of the 
Subject. By the Rev. Frank R. Burrows, M.A. London: Geo. 
Philip and Son Ltd. 19Q6. Price, Is. 6d. net. 

This is a delightful book to read, and is an earnest plea for a more 
intelligent and a more enlightened method of teaching geography. 

The book abounds in YiHuable suggestions and helpful advice for thoee 
interested in the advance of g^eogranhical knowledge, and most teachers of 
the subject could read the 1xx>k with interest and profit. 

If the suggestions and methods so ably put forward in this little book 
were followed by teachers, a ^reat step would be made towards breaking 
down the old methods of teaching geoCTaphy, and at the same time a truer 
ccnception of the educational value of the subject would be formed. 

Tbie careful perusal of the book cannot fail to impress one with a 
desire for greater intelligence amongst teachers and pupils, and also for 
a more rational method of teaching the subject. 

H. C. M. 



NEW MAP. 

CoMFAKATivB Sbribs OF Labqb Sghoolroom Maps. Asia : 80 inches by 
67 inches; soale, 1/6,000,000. London: George Philip and Son 
Ltd. 1905. Price, IBs. 

This wall map of Asia is a great advance on many at present in use. 
The physical features and political boundaries s>tand out very prominently, 
And are clear and well defined. The map does not contain a list of useless 
names^ while those used are printed in clear, bold type. Altogether the 
map is a desirable one, and worthy of a good position on the wall of any 
school. 

H. C. M. 



66 The Journal of the Mcmcheeter Geographical Society. 

OROGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 

By E. W. Dann, B.A., F.R.G.S. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, on Tuesday, April 3rd, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m.] 

HISTORICAL Geography is one phase of the great study of man 
in his terrestrial environment, and of the many phases it is 
assuredly the most scientific. If properly treated, it has a very large 
philosophic element, and should appeal far more than it does to the 
student of either (reography or History. Perhaps this is the last 
aspect of Greography remaining to be aeriosly taken up by some 
si^ecialist of conspicuous ability, and given to the world in logical 
sequence of cause and effect. The old Geography, it has been well 
said, attempted, somewhat ineffectually, to answer the question, Where I 
The new asks, Why there? Similarly, Historical Greography has till 
now hardly occupied itself with more than asking: the positions of 
places which have loomed large on the horizon of past events ; and it 
has found them, with infinite trouble, scattered over a variety of maps, 
politically coloured and with freakish attempts at hill-shading, and 
marked either very obscurely (with the familiar crossed swords or not, 
as the case may warrant), or in strict accordance with their population. 
Some dim awakening seems to have come, and lately we have seen a 
historical atlas containing maps coloured according to the height of the 
land, but giving no sort of clue to their meaning in history. In short, 
they illustrate the orography and leave out the history — ^a very strange 
proceeding. 

One aspect of Historical Geography has been pretty thoroughly 
thrashed out, viz., the extent of various States at various times, but 
there is little or nothing that is more than mere memory work in all 
this. It is no very great encouragement for the student of European 
History, who has been straitly charged to pay special attention to the 
geographical aspect of it all, to be asked in his examination to draw a 
map of the Hapsburg Dominions in 1740, or of the States of Greece 
in 400 B.o. 

Our purpose here is not to claim the initiation of some portentous 
new phase of learning, but by collating fragments from many works to 
show to what an extent land structure ha.s affected, or is likely to affect, 
history, in certain cases, and thereby to stimulate interest in what is 
undoubtedly a most fascinatincr study. Orography means the study of 
heights of land ; in the present instance we shall deal, not only with 
the presence of high land, but also with the absence, in influencing, if 
not deciding, the course of the proprress of the nations. 

This treatment naturally falls into two divisions, the general and 
the particular. At times, as we shall see, they are inseparable, but on 
the whole our subject may be said to illustrate, on the one hand, the 
characteristics of peoples as determined by their geographical environ- 



Orography and History. 57 

ment, and on the other the iater-relation of cause and effect in the 
movements of peoples, their migrations and wars. In short, we are to 
discuss the statics and the dynamics of history. 

Let us first clear our ground. Historical development depends 
upon far more than Orography. It is easy to illustrate this. Ceteris 
paribus, one may naturally expect low land, especially at the mouth of 
some navigable stream^ to be the place of entry into a country for 
hostile peoples. We remember how in our own country the Thames 
£8tuary, the Wash, the Humber, and Southampton Water gave entry 
to Saxon and Dane ; how the Dublin lowland made the heart of Ireland 
easy of access to Strongbow, to Essex, to Cromwell ; how Lisbon gave 
a base to the English in their struggle against Napoleon's marshals, 
how the Guadalquivir gave the Moors an entry into Spain, and how 
the possession of the St. Lawrence gave us Canada. This rule does 
not always hold good. The Amazon, vast flood that it is, with an 
enormous basin stcietching for 2,000 miles back to the Andes before it 
even reaches an elevation of 600 feet, is no e&sy highway into South 
America, although the height map would tell us that it is. The Niger 
mouth never led explorers in the direction of Timbuktu ; a physical 
map cannot show its ill-defined delta, a maze of mangrove swamp. 
Hudson's Bay is not the clajssic waterway into Canada. Nicolairosk 
and the Amur do not give the readiest access to Manchuria. There 
may be forests in the way, or swamps, or ice-floes, and Orography does 
not reveal these. Latitude, or a question of visp-k-vis, or harbour 
facilities, all play their part. But even here the predominant factor is 
land structure. It is true, too, that man himself often transcends 
difficulties which might have been thought insuperable. Think of 
Hannibal's marvellous attack upon Rome. Unable, as Napoleon was 
unable in our ca«e, to reckon upon a safe passage to Italy by sea, he 
crosses the Rhone, traverses the Alps with a surviving force of 20,000 
foot and 6,000 horse; after a few d&ys he chastises the hostile bar- 
barians, takes from them their city of Turin, and then faces the power 
of Rome, with its army of 170,000 men. 

Though man may conquer mountains, and though comparatively 
level ground often conquers man, nevertheless the general principle 
holds good, that the flattest and most easily accessible ground is the 
natural highway for man's activities. This, it may bo said, is a truism, 
but its adequate illustration is no esLsy matter. Historical knowledge 
is necessarily confined, not in regional compartments, but in chrono- 
logical. Some time ago a plea was made for " systematic" Geography 
— the World divided into natural regions, based upon structural 
divisions, temperature belts, climate, vegetation, and density of 
population. There are also historical regions. We will not labour 
here to show how some parts of the World have no history — such aa 
the tundras and ice-caps of the polar regions, where even the poor 
persecuted mammoth could! lay down his weary bonee in peace— iow 
some breathe history from every stone, how some are lands occupied, 
without serious molestation, by colonists, and how some, like India, 
have been the battle ground of nations. Much of this lies outside 
the scope of our subject. 

It IB well known that sea-faring people are generally enterprising 
and that mountain people love independence. Such is undoubtedly 



58 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

the cajse. Athens of old created a maritime empire of a size that 
Sparta and Thebes could neyer rival. Holland, Portugal, and England, 
with their proportion of seaboard, were ahead of the rest of the World 
by an immeasurable lead in colonising enterprise. The Swiss, the 
Afghans, the Scotch, the Welsh, have all made history by their grand 
struggles for independence. This question of physical environment 
goes much farther than one would at first suppose. Take for an 
instance Albania. The Shar range permits no passage of loaded 
animals; the hilk slope towards swampy ground or an inhospitable 
coast ; and torrential streams flow, fed by a copious rainfall, in de^ 
troughs through hiUs of very steep indina Tlie consequence is the 
separation of clan from clan, absence of oonmion sentiment or 
authority, a glorification of fighting, a devolution of all hard work 
upon women, blood feuds, dislike of urban life, and all the evil passions 
bred by these habits of existence. These same people, if found in 
other parts of this region, in Confitantinople or the Levant, become, 
in their changed conditions, comparatively harmless and even oma- 
ments to society. Farther south, in a flatter country, the dreaded 
Ghegs give place to the more amenable Toskhs, flocks and herds are 
kept, there is no blood feud, strangers are admitted, some attention is 
paid to the soil, and the use of weapons is no longer the be-all and 
end-aU of existence. Mr. Hogarth says, "Facilities for navigation, 
the mountainous and beautiful nature of the land, and the keen bracing 
air of the most part of it, have been the chief formative influences in 
Greek life in all ages. The highlanders' restless individualism, intense 
local feeling, love of independence and imaginative habit, modified and 
Koftenod by the civilising influence of the element which chiefly draws 
men together, assimilates and makes them know, and borrow from, the 
world about them — ^these are at the root of Greek character, and the 
result has been sharpened and refined by the singular fortune of 
climate. The essential influences are the same now as they have 
always been, and they produce the same general order of intelligence, 
of greater or less energy ; but the channels into which that intelligence 
is directed have always depended on other influences, not physical, and 
mostly acting from without." 

Indeed, in small areas we can see wider differences in people ^o 
have always lived on the land. Most Englishmen can see a difference 
between what is euphemistically termed the " sturdy independence " 
of the inhabitants of bleak Pennine lands, and the less extreme habits 
of those who dwell in the Thames Valley or the eastern counties. And 
how the Athenian poured scorn and contempt upon the bucolic Theban, 
^s BotwTos, as he called him ! 

Professor George Adam Smith, in his magnificent Hhtorieal 
Geography of the. Holy Land^ taking his reader even farther than this 
in a chapter on the climate and fertility of the land, shows that the 
migration of Israel to Palestine affected them in two ways. " It meant 
an ascent in civilisation and a fall in religion." Living in the desert 
meant a nomadic life. They were a series of loosely-connected pastoral 
clans, but became a united people, with a definite territory, and its 
culture as a means of life. TTie settlement in Canaan raised the 
standard of living. The creed of the desert nomad is simple and 
austere. His hard life makes him dependent on powers which are 



Orography and History. 69 

higher thau hus own. But translate him to Syria, the land of lavish 
gifts, where '' the freedom of nature excites, and seems to sanction, the 
passions of the human body, where food is rich and men drink wine/' 
Imagine the contrast between the scorching and monotonous aridity 
of Arabia and the sudden paradises which Syria presents. No wonder 
that Israel fell into polytheism. '' In every favoured spot of the land 
their predecessors had felt a Ba'al, a Lord or Possessor, to whom the 
place was Be^ulah, subject or married, and to these innumerable 
Ba*alini they turned aside." 

How appropriately, too, was the greatest of the southern continents 
styled Darkest Africa. This vast land was for century after century 
a dosed book to the civilised world. To men of ordinary resource and 
ordinary courage it was impenetrable. Low, harbourlees shores, with 
the narrowest of coastal plains, a huge tableland behind with next to 
no navigable rivers to lead the stranger into the country — what wonder 
is it that it needed a succession of heroes, such as the World began to 
see only after the nineteenth century had well begun, to make it 
possible for European nations to enter Africa, and to strive, in one 
way or another, to put an end to the dark and dismal habits of some 
of the most ignorant and degraded savages the World knows? 

Afghanistan is a very fine instance of the effect of environment 
upon human beings. It is a little unfortunate that the accounts we 
have of the Afghans are nearly all from the pens of writers of our 
own nation, and are therefore under the suspicion of partiality. The 
Afghans, like other nations with whom we liave come into collision, are 
vituperated rather than criticised. In 1840 we, for political reasons, 
interfered in that country in no very creditable way and with disastrous 
results. In 1848 the Afghans helped the Sikhs against us, we had 
trouble with them in the Persian affair of 1855, and in 1878, in, order 
to outbid Russia, we sent a "mission " of a thousand men, " too many 
for peace, too few for war," to demand the reception at Kabul of a 
British Embassy. In pursuit of this questionable object, and of the 
equally questionable plan of establishing British representatives and 
an intelligence department in Afghanistan, a war was forced upon the 
Amir. This also produced disaster, relieved by brilliant exploits it is 
true, and the country was once more evacuated. Hence the Afghans 
are known to Englishmen as " stubborn, brave, and so treacherous that 
the word gains an intensive meaning when applied to them. Towards 
strangers tEey are either servile or hectoring, the probable result in 
personal financial profit being the sole rule of conduct." They are, in 
point of fact, a typical mountain people shut in by physical obstacles 
from all the beneficent influences of civilisation, fierce and clannish 
and a terror to their enemies. What tribes in India have given us the 
most trouble? The hill tribes. This is, of course, largely due to the 
fact that we have had to fight them in their difficult mountain regions ; 
but their resoluteness and tenacity have proved as great a stiunbling 
block as their country, and that resoluteness and that tenacity are the 
product of their environment. Olive's task at Plassey, against great 
odds, was a trifle compared with Gough's at Chillianwallah, where 
there was no very great disparity of numbers. Similarly, the Romans 
had a far tougher task with the inhabitants of northern Scotland than 
they had with the Britons of Kent or East Anglia. Indeed, they never 



60 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

subdued the Picts and Scots. How superlatively difficult was our taak 
in the Zulu War of 1877; and how disastrous was the experience of the 
Italians on the Abyssinian border a few years ago 1 

It is perfectly true that Orography alone does not make the differ- 
ence between servility and love of liberty. The inhabitants of the 
American colonies lost to us by Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga and 
Lord Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown did not owe their independent 
spirit to the structure of their country, but to their British descent; 
and the Dervishes of the Sudan have been actuated, not by a climate 
that breathes freedom, but by the omnipotent power of a magnificently 
fanatical religion. Nevertheless, the general principle holds good, and 
the denizens of a land of ozone and mountains are always superior in 
spirit to those of a country of malaria and plain. This spirit has made 
history, a history of progress, a history of independence. 

So far, then, we have seen the effect of Orography upon general 
character. Even more important has it been upon events. The 
migrations of peoples and the campaigns of generals have always been, 
and always will be, circumscribed by the configuration of the land. 
So it is that we find, over and over again, similar events taking place, 
at widely different periods, in the same localities. A few examples only 
will have to suffice. They could be multiplied indefinitely. 

The migrations of peoples constitute the simplest study of this 
kind. At one time nomadic Asia swarmed into Europe; in the 
eighteenth century colonising Europe began to overflow^ into Asia. 
We choose two instances of the former, on account of their simplicity 
and the instinctiveneas of the warring tribes. First in order we take 
the rise of Islam. The cradle of Mohammedanism was Arabia. 
Impelled by the warlike spirit of their great leader, the Turkish 
peoples went forth from this centre, conquering and to conquer. 
Syria was annexed in 634, Persia was ruined by the Arabs at Cadesia 
two years later. Jerusalem fell in 637, and Egypt was conquered in 
640. Eastwards the victors spread into India. We will follow them 
westwards. In 697 the Saracens stormed Carthage. Four years later 
the Arabs took Sardinia, and they were constantly successful in Asia 
Minor and Spain. Gaul, however, began to feel the weight of 
invasion, and Burgundy was ravaged in 725. Poitiers saw an Arab 
defeat in 732. This battle is generally known to fame as the battle of 
Tours, and was the turning-point in the history of the Moorish 
invasions, one of the great battles of the World's history. Many hard 
blows had, however, still to be struck. Charles defeated them again, 
and in Spain Alfonso, king of the Asturias, began a series of successful 
forays against the common enemy. Pepin took Narbonne in 759, 
a most vitally important fortress in all times, and freed the north 
side of the Pyrenees. In 778 took place the celebrated Roland 
incident at Roncesvaux, when Charlemagne's rearpruard was cut off, and 
here we will leave this particular illustration. The Arab migrations, 
then, as far as we have followed them, had their course along the low 
coast of Syria, Sinai, Egypt, and Northern Africa to the Atlas. From 
here the Arabs crossed to Spain, and Andalusia was their first strong- 
hold. The orographical map shows why. Northwards they traveUei 
as far as the Ix>ire, but that was their high-water mark. The gate of 
Carcassonne, which one can now no longer, alas! hear magnificently 



Orography and History, 61 

described hy Mr. Mackinder at Oxford, saw the last of the Moors in 
France. The only other accessible part of the Pyreneee saw the defeat 
of Charlemagne's rearguard. 

Orography, too, determined the course of tlie Vandals. Springing 
originally from the land between the Oder and the Vistula, they appear 
to have crossed the Rhine near Mainz, to have passed by way of Reims 
and Orleans, to have passed the eastern end of the Pyi-enees, crossed 
Spain, traversed Northern Africa, and to have spent their force upon 
Sardinia and Sicily. Here we have the same story in reverse order, 
and the movements of man taking a precisely similar series of trend- 
lines. We cannot leave mention of Spain without touching briefly 
upon the Peninsular War. A finer illustration of our subject hardly 
exists. The French enter Spain by the eastern gate (they leave it by 
the western). Our base is Lisbon. In 1808 Wellesley wins the battle 
of Vimiera, just north of Lisbon, and frees Portugal of the French. 
In 1809 Moore executes his clever, but none too successful, move to 
save Madrid, and dies at Corunna. In 1809 a successful engagement 
at Talavera threatens Badajoz, in 1810 occur the affairs of Busaco and 
Torree Vedras, the French failure to drive us out of Portugal. The 
campaign of 1811 prevents the relief of Badajoz. In 1812 we are able 
to take the offensive. Badajoz gives us the line of the Guadiana and 
Cuidad Rodrigo makes it possible to threaten Madrid from the North. 
Salamanca gives us temporary possession of Madrid. In 1813 the task 
of driving out the French begins to move more rapidly, and the battle 
of Vittoria gives us the opportunity of seizing San Sebastian and 
Pampluna. The battles in the western passes of the Pyrenees lead to 
the invasion of France, and Orthez and Toulouse put an end to this 
phase of the war. Once more have we seen similar events taking 
place in the same localities. The surface features of the ground have 
again directed the efforts of man into the same channels as of yore. 
Other instances could be cited, such as, for example, the Black Prince's 
misguided expedition from Bordeaux into Navarre on behalf of Pedro 
the Cruel ; but these will suffice. 

Our last illustration to be taken in anything like detail will be the 
colossal struggles between France and its foes in Europe. The land 
features which have decided, in all cases, the lines of action are the Bel- 
gian border, with the streams, the Sambre and Mouse, leading thereto ; 
the Gate of Metz, or the line of the Mosel, and the Burgundy Gate. The 
Sambro and Mouse tell us of Navarre and William III., of Ramillies 
and Marlborough, of Waterloo, of disastrous Sedan. The Moselle 
reminds us of the fall of Metz. The Burgundy Gate recalls memories 
of Belfort and Strassburg. But these routes have been used over and 
over again, in both directions. The great combined invasion of France 
in 1813-1814 illustrates this if we compare it with the invasion in the 
opposite direction in 1870. In 1813 Bliicher, with the main Prussian 
army, known- as the army of Silesia, crossed the Rhine in three columns 
at Koblenz, Mannheim, and Mainz. These were to strike along the 
Mosel. Schwartzenberg turned the mountains of the Jura by marching 
through Switzerland and' coming northwards to meet Bliicher, leaving: 
the Rhine fortresses behind him. Farther north Antwerp, still faithful 
to Napoleon, was beseiged, at Lyon ^ugereau failed to do anything 
to stop the Austrians, though he might have seriously hindered them 



62 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 

as they emerged from the Jura, and Soult had his hands very full with 
Wellington in the south. The campaign therefore resolved itself into 
a aeries of hanmier-like blows bj Napoleon in Champagne upon the 
scattered forces of the allies. Bliicher was between the Marue and 
the Aube, with Paris as his objective, and a series of engagements took 
plaoe in which Napoleon, screening his movements behind the Seine, 
cut up division after division of Blucher's army at Brienne, Champau- 
bert, Montmirail and Vauchamps, and of Schwartzenberg's at Nangis 
and Montereau. After a pause Napoleon failed to win the battlee of 
Cr&onne and Laon, to the west of Reims. Eleven days later he struck, 
in vain, against the southern force at Arcis-«ur-Aube. With mar- 
vellous tenacity the Emperor marched on the invader's line of com- 
munications towards the Vosges, but the allies did not heed him, and 
Paris fell. 

Compare this with the Franco-Prusgian War. The French position 
at the start was as follows: From Strassburg to Metz two lines of 
fortresses, one north-westwards, via Bitsch, the other westwards, via 
Nancy. Strassburg and Nancy were in their turn connected in rear 
with Belfort, the entrance to the Burgundy Gate and with Lyon, 
while Nancy and Thionville communicated with Paris by two railroads, 
one passing throu^ Ch&lons and Epernay, and the other by M^iires 
and Reims. The German main attack was delivered on Metz and 
Strassburg. The defeats at Saarbriick, Weissenburg, and Worth 
isolated Strassburg and endangered Metz. That fortress was soon 
invested, and the Prusaians advanced on the Mame. Marshal 
McMahon retired to Nancy and ChMons-sur-Mame, and from there 
made a detour via Reims and Rethel in order to relieve Bazaine. The 
battle of Beaimiont shut him up in Sedan, and all the world knows 
the rest The German advance on Paris was in two divisions: the 
3rd Army Corps made, by way of Rethel, Reims, and Epernay to the 
Marne, Montmirail, and Colommiers, investing the south of Paris. 
The 4th Army Corps passed by way of Vouziers and Reims to the 
Mame at Claye, and took up its position on the north of the city. 
Strassburg fell meanwhile, the Loire army was beaten at Orleans, St 
Quentin was taken, Metz capitulated far in the rear, and Paris was 
forced to admit the victorious Prussians. The two great sets of 
operations in 1814 and 1870-1 are, in point of fact, strikingly alike, 
and necessarily so from the formation of the countiy. 

The most striking instance, however, of the almost infallible way 
in which physical conditions have over and over again caused human 
activities to move in the some channels is that of the Danube. Space 
does not permit of detailed notice of the nmnerous incursions alon^ 
tile line of this vast stream ; but one may in a general way point out 
how events have recurred at the same points. The Upper Danube 
being one highway to Vienna, we note that Marlborough's maroh in 
1704 to relieve Austria from destruction was directed from Belgrium, 
by way of Coblentz and the Rhine to Donauwordi, where the British 
General crossed the Danube. The result was the great battle of Blen- 
heim and the salvation of Europe. Moreau, too, in 1800 had his head- 
quarters at Augsburg and his advanced guard at Munich. At Hohen- 
linden, in December, he won his great victory and then pushed on 
along the Inn, the Salzach, and Traun, and the Ens. Macdonald 



Orography and History. 63 

crossed the Spliigen and penetrated Tirol, and with two armies 
threatening him the Emperor Francis sued for peace, which was coor 
eluded at Lun6villa In 1805 General Mack established himself at 
Ulm, fancying that Napoleon would adyanoe, like Moreau, through the 
Black Forest; but the Grand Army came through Wiirtemburg and 
Franconia, violating the Prussian neutrality by passing through 
Anspaoh, and cornered Mack and 33,000 men. Next, Napoleon 
marched past a combined Russian and Austrian force in Moravia, 
occupied Vienna, crossed the Danube, and subsequently faced the two 
emperors at Austerlitz. In 1809 the Archduke Charles advanced into 
Bavaria, and once more Napoleon won battles at Abensberg, Eokmiihl, 
Essling, and Wagram. It is the same story over again. The 
Moravian Gate, along the line of the march, together with the line 
of the Oder, is strewn with the battlefields of the past. Olmuti, 
Glatz, Neisse, Kiistrin, Kiinersdorf, Zorndorf, tell us of Frederick the 
Great and his wars, and the line of the Elbe is inseparably connected 
with the cam.paign of Liitzen, Bautzen, Dresden, and of Leipsic, where 
Napoleon w^s overwhelmed in 1814. The Iron Gates of the Danube 
br'stle with places of importance in the wars between Hungary and the 
Turks, and the lower Danube, bordering the plain of Houmania and 
looking towards the gap between the Black Sea and the Kai*pathians, 
reminds us of past activities when we see such names as Ruschuk, 
Silistria, or Plevna. 

In our own country the east coast lowland, the Cheshire Gap, the 
Severn border, the Weiald of Kent, have all played their part. But we 
must reluctantly pass them by. It woiild have been useful, too, to 
trace out the history of Asia Minor, Arabia, Syria, and Iran in the 
light of their structure, or to consider the events that have been 
moulded by the formation of the New England coast. But enough 
has, we hope, been said to emphasise the enormous importance of a 
scientific study of the interaction of land forms and events. 

Such, then, are a few instances of the vital effect Orography has 
had upon History. Only a few such have been possible in the small 
space at our disposal. They could be multiplied indefinitely. It is 
possible, no doubt, to exaggerate the effect of land structure u[x>n 
historical development; but the danger is not great aa yet. This 
short study is intended to serve as a plea for a more scientific, even a 
more common-sense study of History. To illustrate events by maps of 
fourth-rate workmanship, with all idea of Orography utterly absent, 
is no attempt at Historical Geography, properly so- called. The real 
thing should be, not a series of brilliant essays with an occasional 
sketch map thrown in to tell one where such and such an event took 
place, but a succession of finely-executed contoured maps of regions 
where man's activities have been pronounced and repeated. It is a 
Historical Geography on a regional basis that we need, and not a course 
of mere " cram " work, in which the memory alone is brought into play 
to docket and pigeon-hole the innumerable changes of frontier which 
successions of wars and dynasties have made and obliterated. What 
part have the Margraviate of Baden, or the Principality of Hohenlohe, 
or the Republic of Andorra, carefully delineated as they are in many 
" Historical Atlases," played in comparison with the Moravian Gate, 
or the Strait of Dover, or the Bosphorus, or the Moselle? We must 



64 The Journal of the Mcmehester Oeographical Society. 

study maA in his terrestial environment if we are to understand him 
aright, and we shall miss the greater part of our interest in his doing* 
in ^e past, or in speculations as to the future, if we forget the oonstant 
and inevitable interdependence of Orography and History. 

AuTHORirms. — Time Table of Modern History : M. Morison (Con- 
stable). European History, 476-1871 : Hassall (Maomillan). Central 
Europe: Partsch (Heinemann). The Nearer East: Hogarth (Claren- 
don Press). Britain and the British Seas: Mackinder (Heinemann). 
Tfie International Geography : H. R. Mill (Newnee). Historical Atlas 
of Modern Europe: Lane-Poole (Clarendon Press). Napoleon: J. H. 
Rose (Bell). Stieler^s Hand Atlas, Bartholomev/s Survey AtUu. 
Encyclopcedia Brittania (sundry articles). The volume of maps, 
though poor, ia not without useful points. Any standard histories of 
England, France, etc., for details of campaigns. The Balance of 
Power : Hassall (Rivingtons), and others of this series. 



NEW BOOK. 

" Lippincott's New Gazhttbbr." A Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer 
or Geographical Dictionary of the World. Edited by Angelo 
Heilprin and Louis Heilprin. Philadelphia and London: J. B. 
Lippinoott Company. 1906. Price, £2 2b. net. 

This is a handaome volume of well over 2,000 pages, containing some 
100,000 notioee of oountriee, cities, towns, villages, and hamlets, of mountain 
ranges, rivers, lakes, and oceans ; with hietorical .summaries of the nations 
and condensed tftatistios of population and production. It will need the 
lapse of considerable time and the practical employment of the Gazetteer 
as a book of reference, with not unfrequent oomparisonj of official returns 
and documents, to justify anyone in expressing an opinion as to the fall 
merits of this booK, which claims to oe not a new edition of Messrs. 
Lippincott's old Gazetteer, but *' an entirely new book from cover to cover." 
We can only give the impression made upon the perusal of the notices 
given of some well-known countries in Europe, Africa, America, and 
Austiflrlia. 'Hie space which can be given to the description even of the 
most important is, of course, very limited, but in the instances we have 
oonsultea we ere impressed with the ability with which the Editors have 
condensed a large amount of useful information, and have brought their 
statistics, their history, and tiheir scientific investigation up to the most 
modem date, and seem to have consulted the most trustwoithy sources of 
knowledge. 'Hie writer of this notice has been greatly impressed by the 
literary skill which has produced historical summaries in which so clear an. 
outline h%s been given of the main facts of the nations' stories which he 
has examined. In the United States of America and in the Dominion of 
Canada the names of hamlets and villages with only a few houses and a 
few scores of inhabitants are ^ven. Aa the work is published in the 
United states it is not surprising that the same detailed information ie 
not given with regard to the rest of the world, and that we have not found 
the names of some small places with which we happen to be familiar in 
Australia and in Europe mentioned. To have adopted the same plan 
in dealing with all other countries as with the United States and Canada 
would have made the Gazetteer an unwieldy volume. Even as it is, ite 
size prevents the volume opening flat, and makes it not quite easy to read 
in places The type is clear and distinct, and the volume is handsome in 
appearance. No one can fail to find in this work a useful addition to his 
horary, and every one who wishes to keep abreast with the events rec(»ded 
every day in the newspapers, whether political, commercial, or scientific in 
the broadest character, will find it a valuable source of information. 

S. A. S. 



Canadian Rocky Movmtains, 65 



A CHAPTER IN THE HISTORY OF THE EXPLORATION OF 
THE CANADIAN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 

Bt Hbbmann Woollxt, F.B.G.S. 

[Addietaed to the Society^ in the Coal Exchange, on Tuesday, March 2l8t, 

1905.] 







F the thousands of peiBOoa who trayel yearly between Vanoouver 
and Montreal by the Canadian Paoifio Railway probably few 
realise that before the line was made, twenty years ago, British 
Columbia was completely cut off from Eastern Canada by natural 
obstacles, that the journey from Montreal to Vancouyer could be 
made only by a long circuitous route through the United States, and 
that a Montreal man oould visit London far more easily than any 
part of British Columbia. 

The most formidable of the obstacles over which the Canadian 
Pacific Railway had to be carried are the Rocky Mountains and the 
Selkii^ Range, while farther westward are the Cascade and Coast 
Ranges ; and the country is so difficult and the distances are so great 
that the preliminary work of exploration and siirvey alone is said to 
have cost about £700,000. 

When the route to be taken by the new railway had been decided 
there was no urgent need for further exploration, and, although the 
line was completed in 1886, it was not till 1893 that Proferaor 
Coleman, of Toronto, and Mr. Wilcox, of Boston, with other members 
of the Boston Appalachian Club, began to make expeditions into the 
Bocky Mountains both north and south of the railway. 

In 1897 Professors Norman Collie und Harold B. Dixon joined a 
party of American friends in a climbing expedition near Laggan, a 
station on the eastern side of the Rockies, aoid in the course of this 
expedition Professor Collie saw several lofty peaks, apparently sixty 
or seventy miles away to the nortii-west. Now, in 1827 a botanist 
named Douglas stated that he had discovered two high mountains, 
respectively 16,000 and 15,700 feet high, close to the Athabasca Pass, 
about ^ghty miles north-west of the nearest point now touched by 
the railway, and to these peaks he gave the names of Mount Brown 
and Mount Hooker. When Professor Coleman visited the Athabasca 
Pass in 1893 he failed to find in the neighbourhood any mountains 
of greater altitude than about 9,000 feet; nevertheless. Mounts Brown 
and Hooker continued to retain their places and heights in all the 
maps of Western Canada likely to be consulted by the general public. 
It occurred, therefore, to Professor Collie that perhaps the summits 
be saw to the north-west might, after all, prove to be Douglases great 
peaks, and so it came about that the following year he invited Mr. 
H. £. M. Stutfield and myself to join him in a journey to the sources 



vy 



66 The Jaumal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

of the Atliabaaca River, Id order to visit the mountains he had seen 
and ascertain whether they attained the heights attributed in the 
atlases to Mount Brown and Mount Hooker. 

We left Liverpool for Montreal in July, 1898, our steamer taking 
the northern course through the Straits of Belleiale, and as the summer 
was not far advanced we passed a number of very beautiful icebergs 
before nearing the ooa«t of Newfoundland. 

From Montreal to Banff — our first stopping-place in the Rocky 
Mountains— the distance is 2,346 miles, and the journey by the 
Canadian Pacific Railway occupied three days and a half. 

After leaving Ottawa the country traversed consists largely of a 
wilderness of fir-wood, ice-worn rocks, lakes and streams; then for 
about two hundred miles the line runs through fine sceneiy on the 
north ahore of Lake Superior. Later follows more broken coimtry, 
till about 1,350 milee from Montreal the rocks sink below the soil 
and we enter the flat fertile plain of Manitoba; finally comes the 
prairie plateau extending up to the Rooky Mountains. 

Hour after hour the train passes through this vast expanse of 
prairie ; there is little to attract attention save the innumerable old 
buffalo tracks and mud-wallows, and the only sign of man's activity 
is the lonely railway track, bordered by a straggling line of empty 
tins and bottles thrown from the oars during the last twenty years 
by immigrants and others. 

After spending a day or two at Banff, which by reason of its 
picturesque situation and bracing air has become an important tourist 
resort, we took the train thirty-five miles farther westward to Laggan, 
the stajrting point for our journey into the mountains. At La^an 
(4,930 feet) the railway, after ascending the Bow Valley for nearly 
two hundred miles, turns away westward towards the Kicking Horse 
Pass on the continental divide, while the course of the Bow River 
retains its former direction — i.e., from N.N.-W. to S.S.-E. 

Our party now consisted of Professor Collie, Mr. Statfield, and 
myself, with four men, twelve horses, and three dogs. As it was 
necessary to take with us sufficient food to last six weeks, nearly all 
the horses were laden ; but we also took saddles, in order that we 
migh't ride as the loads became reduoed. The dogs were worse than 
useless, as they made away wiih much food which we could ill spare 
towards the end of the journey. 

Our intention was to travel northward on the eastern side of the 
main chain by the valley of the North Saskatchewan. The most 
direct route from Laggan is along the Upx)er Bow River ; but hearing 
that there was a very bad trail in the Bow Valley, we decided to take 
the longer route up the Pipestone Valley, the next parallel valley 
to the east of the Upper Bow Valley; consequently, on July 31st we 
left Laggan and started northward up the Pipestone. 

Our difficulties began immediately. When the railway was con- 
structed it frequently happened that the woods in the neighbourhood 
took fire, so that wherever the line passes through thick forest it is 
often bordered on both sides by a dismal belt of burnt timber. 

About ten years after a fire the roots decay and the burnt trunks 
fall, forming a chaos of blackened logs, crossing each other in all 



Canadian Rocky Mountains. 67 

directioDfi, through which it is often quite impossible to pass with 
horses and sometimes very difficult to penetrate on foot. 

In 1898 the burnt timber to the north of Laggan Station was 
exceedingly bad, and within an hour after starting we lost one of our 
horses, which broke a leg in trying to jimip a log and had to be 
■hot. 

After an hour or two we passed out of the burnt wood, and then 
found a fairly good trail; but during the next two days the heat 
was very great, and the horses were so sorely tormented by mosquitoes 
and " bulldog " flies that after veiy short marches we had to halt and 
to make "smudges" for them. 

A smudge is made by lighting a fire and covering it with turf; 
this produces dense clouds of smoke, in the midst of which the horses 
stand, and so protect themselves against the maddening attacks of 
t^e flies. 

Our sleeping tent was a teepee — ».e., the old Indian form of tent, 
canvas being used in. place of skins. On reaching a camping groimd 
about twenty young spruce trees are cut down to make poles, which 
are arranged to form a hollow cone, and over them the teepee canvas 
is stretched, an opening being left at the top for ventilation, or to 
serve as a chimney whetn a fire is made inside. When mosquitoes were 
very troublesome we generally smoked them out of the teepee before 
turning into our sleeping-bags. 

On the third day after starting we passed the tree limit and 
crossed the Pipestone Pass, which was estimated to be about 8,200 feet 
above sea level; we had, therefore, risen more than 3,000 feet since 
leaving Laggan. The weather was now unsettled and cloudy ; but we 
were able to see, amongst the numerous summits of tiie north- 
west, Ofne fine mountain, which was identified as Mount Murchison, 
erroneously credited in the maps with a height of 15,781 feet. 

We now descended on the north side of the pass to the head of 
the Sifileur (Marmot) Valley, and were soon traveling again through 
forests of spruce — the prevailing tree in the Canadian Rockies-^on a 
fairly good trail, which we followed for two and a half days down the 
Sxffleur River towards the North Saskatchewan. 

Up to this time the air had been clear, but in descending the 
Talley we noticed an increasing haziness, which our men told us 
was caused by a forest fire somewhere to the north-east. 

On reaching the Saskatchewan Valley we found the river in high 
flood, owing to the great heat melting the snow on the mountains ; 
and the channel, which is several hundred yards wide, was filled from 
baink to bank with a swirling torrent of muddy water rolling east- 
ward on its way to Lake Winnipeg. 

We now travelled westward up the valley, whose flat floor is 
enclosed on both sides by bold limestone hills. The haze increased 
with every hour, till at last the atmosphere became so thick that the 
mountains on the north side of the river were almost hidden, and 
although the fire was probably a hundred miles distant there was a 
distinct smell of smoke and burning wood. 

We heard afterwards that during that particular summer (1898) a 
number of " outfits" — i.e., expeditions — ^had left Edmonton, which lay 
to the oast, on the overland journey to Klondyke, and through inezpe- 



<S8 The Journal of the Manchester Geogra/phical Society. 

Hence or carelessness the woods had been set on fire at yarious points 
to the north and north-east of the Saekatohewan River. 

In consequence of this wnokj atmosphere it was quite impossible 
to obtain good photographs of distant views during the following 
three weeks. 

There is an old Indian trail on the right bank of the Saskatchewan, 
but in many places this was now submerged, so that our progress 
was very slow. On one ocoasion three of our hoi«es jumped into the 
river and swam off to an island, and when they had been induced 
to return we were obliged to halt for the rest of the day in order 
to dry our stores. At last we left the river, and, striking inland 
through the woods, found a good trail, and on the ninth day after 
leaving Laggan arrived at Bear Creek Mouth, a well-known camping 
ground, at the point where a rapid torrent called Little Fork or 
Bear Creek flows into the main river. 

It is at and near this point that three rivers unite to form the 
North Saskatchewan; the three tributaries being the Little Fork 
from the sout^, the Middle Fork from the west, and the North Fork 
from the north. 

Bear Creek Mouth is not improbably destined to become a favourite 
tourist centre in the future. The confluence of the three rivers 
occurs in a vaUey about -a mile wide ; (fine limestone bluffs and peaks 
are picturesquely g^uped on all sides, some of the mountains rising 
to between 10,000 and 11,000 feet above sea level, and still higher 
snowy peaks are seen in several directions. 

Mount Murchison towers immediately above the camping ground 
to the south-east, and a few miles up Bear Creek is a very interesting 
canyon which the impetuous torrent has cut deep down into the 
limestone rock. There are several fine lakes in Little FoHl VaHey, 
*»iid about ten miles up the Middle Fork is a very beautiful lake, 
called Glacier Lake, which is fed by one of the glacier torrents from 
the great Lyell Ice-field situated on the continental divide or water- 
shed. 

Our route now lay up the North Fork, and after camping for a 
day at Bear Creek to rest the horses, and after leaving a dep6t of 
provisions for the return, we started on the second stage of our 
jc^Jmey. In order to reach North Fork Valley it was necessary to 
cross first the Little Fork and then the Middle Fork. 

At itsmouthLittleFork, or, as it is usually called. Bear Creek, is 
a torrent about fifty yards wide, running like a mill-race over a bed 
of great boulders, so that the passage is always attended with some 
risk when the river is in flood ; but, fortunately, we crossed it without 
accident, and then rode westward up the south bank of Middle Fork 
for about a mile and a half. 

At this point the river is about half & mile wide, its bed consisting 
of a number of shingle and sand banks, separated by not very deep 
channels, and these were forded without great difficulty. We wers 
now on the western bank of the Nortii Fork, and after one or two 
attempts to force our way through the dense woods, were obliged to 
camp for a day while our head man, Peyto, and another of our men, 
Nigel, went on ahead with their axes to clear a trail for the horses. 



Canadian Rocky Mountains. 69 

We soon discovered that we -were on the wrong side of the river ; 
but, owing to the great depth and volume of water, it was impossible 
to cross, and so for the next five dajrs we continued to struggle up the 
western bank, leading our horses through the tangled woods, some- 
times keeping to the margin of the brimful river, at other times forced 
up tiie deneely-wooded hillsides by impassable swamps or '' muskegs," 
as they are called in Canada. On one of these days we were able 
to advance seven or eight miles, on the others only three or four, and 
frequently the whole outfit was stopped for hours while the two axe- 
men were cutting out a trail. During all this time the heat was 
great, and the mosquitoes were very troublesome, while the air was so 
thick with smoke that photography was out of the question, and little 
could be seen of the limestone mountains which rise thousands of feet 
above the valley. 

On the fifth day after leaving Bear Creek we were camped on a 
low wooded point of land, to the north of which a great branch of 
the river, turbid with glacier mud, flowed in from the west. Although 
the only map at our disposal gave no indication of an important 
tributary at this point, it was obvious that this West Branch, as it is 
now oalled, brought down most of the water into the North Fork, 
and had its source in a consideraible region of snow and glacier ; but 
Poyto and Nigel, who had been clearing a trail ahead, came back 
about noon with such an unfavourable report that we gave up all idea 
of trying to follow up this western stream. 

Peyto reported that the woods on the south side of the West 
Branch were so dense that we should be able to advance only a mile 
or two a day, while the river banks were so beset with swamps that 
they were unsafe for horses ; in fact, it was necessary either to cross 
the main river or to turn back. 

The North Fork Valley was, at this point, nearly a mile wide, and 
was occupied by numerous shingle flats and branches of the river. 
After some difficulty we succeeded in fording the deepest channel, 
and then were able to ride up the centre of the river bed, along banks 
of sand and shingle, and across comparatively shallow channels, 
having the main currents of the two rivers to our right and left. 
That night the camp was pitched in the angle formed by the junction 
of the two streams. Below us was the wide expanse of shingle flats, 
intersected by channels of muddy water ; to the south we could see 
some miles down the North Fork, with its dait woods growing down 
to the water's edge, while above the woods on both sides of the 
valley imposing mountains, with height and bulk exaggerated by the 
haze, loomed through the smoky atmosphere. 

We could also trace the course of the West Branch for some miles 
towards the main watershed ; it was an uninviting valley, occupied 
entirely by swamps, mud-banks, and numerous branches of the swift, 
swollen river. 

Next morning we left our camp, and immediately began to make 
better progress up the continuation of the North Fork, now much 
reduced in volume. The valley became narrower, the river dwindled 
away to a mere torrent, and on the second day we left it, and had a 
long pleasant ride through hilly country, with views to the west of 
the snowy peaks and glaciers of the main chain. 



70 The Journal of the Manchester OeographicaZ Society. 

Rising steadily almosA} to the tree limit, we orossed a grassy pass, 
about 7,000 feet above sea level, descended about a mile on the north 
side, and on the nineteenth day alter leaving Laggan camped by a 
small stream, one of the sources of the eastern branch of the Athabasca 
River, whose waters* flowing through the Peace River, Great Slave 
Lake, and Mackenzie River, eventually reach the Arctic Ocean, after a 
course oT some two thousand miles. 

I^e first disoovery we made on settling down in our new camp 
was that our bacon was nearly finished. Our food consisted practi- 
cally of oatmeal, bacon, and bread — ^the cook baked bread every 
night^^and in order to try to provide aomething to take the place of 
bacon, Mr. Stutfield, the sportsman of the party, decided to go forth 
next day with Peyto and Nigel en a hunting expedition. Hitherto we 
had seen nothing bigger than ** fool-hen" — a species of tree grouse; 
but it was hoped that wild goat, or, better still, wild sheep (bighorn) 
might be found on the hills to the east of the camp. 

Meanwhile Professor Collie and I arranged to start for the ajBcent 
of a fine snowy peak which rose on the aouth-weet side of the valley 
behind an intervening ridge; we thought it might prove to be about 
10,000 feet high, and might aiford us a good view of the surrounding 
country. Owing to various delays it was nine o'clock next morning 
before we started. On scaling the crest of the intervening ridge 
we obtained a full view of our peak, and realised at once t£at o<ur 
task was more formidable than had been anticipated. At our feet 
was a fine glacier, enclosed between the north-eastern and northern 
ridges of the mountain, and we ascended this glacier for some distance 
till it became very steep and much crevassed. 

We then scaled the rocks of the north-eastern ridge; but this 
soon became a steep arite of hard ice, and it was necessary to cut 
steps in the ice for two hours before we gained the final rocks about 
two hundred feet below the top of the peak. 

These rocks, as had been expected, were very steep; they were 
also exceedingly loose, and the greatest care was necessary in climbing 
them, but shortly before six o'clock in the evening we gained the 
narrow ridge of anow which formed the sunmiit. Measured by 
the mercurial baiometer the altitude was 11,900 feet above sea level, 
this being the highest point hitherto reached in the Canadian Rockies. 
As the mountain stands close to one of the principal sources of the 
Athabasca River, Mount Athabasca seemed an appropriate name 
for it. 

The view which burst on us as we arrived <m the summit was a great 
surprisa An immense, hitherto unheard-of ice-field extended for miles 
away to the south-west, west, and north-west, and round the margin 
of this expanse of snow and ice were numerous unknown peaks, two 
of which, lying to the west, immediately attracted our attention ; we 
imagined tiieir height to be fully 13,000 feet, and for a moment 
thought that we had found the real Mounts Brown and Hooker. 

Professor Collie got out his plane table and filled in the positions of 
the various peaks, while 1 built a cairn on a locky ledge on the soutii 
side of the top ; then we packed up and hurried down — ^not the way by 
which we had ascended, but down the north ridge, which, although 
longer, was less steep than the other, and was moreover free from ice. 



Canadian Rocky Mountains. 71 

It was ai race againBt time ; but, by dint of glissadiug snow slopes,. 
Slurrying down the easy portions of the ridge, and using the rope at 
the steep drops, we just managed to cross the glacier before daylight 
faded, and then lit our lantern and found our way back to camp soon 
after 11 o'clock p.m. 

Mr. Stutfield had arrived about an hour before us, and brought the 
welcome news that he had shot three wild sheep, 90 that we were now 
supplied with meat for some time to come. 

Two days later our party of three set out for a further exploration 
of the newly-discovered ice-field, which it was decided to name the 
Columbia Ice-field. About three miles to the west of our camp was 
the end of a large 'glacier, which descends from the ice-field towards 
the north-east, and from which flows one of the chief sources of the 
Eastern Athabasca River. This ice-stream now bears the name 
Athabasca Glacier, and by it we decided to approach the ice-field. 

Having slept in a sheltered place near the snout of the glacier, we 
started with a lantern about 1-30 a.m., and after five hours* work 
succeeded in gaining the upper n6v6. Crossing the ice-field nearly 
due west we advanced in the direction of the highest peak in sight 
(Mount Columbia), but after tramping through the soft snow for 
two hours, and gaining a height of 10,000 feet, it was obvious that 
the distance to be traversed was too great, and turning off to the 
north-east we ascended a dome-shaped snow moim tain (11,650 feet), 
which afforded a comprehensive view in all directions. 

From what was seen from this summit and from another more 
northern peak, ascended a few days later, it was evident that the ice- 
field extended across the continental watershed, and that none of the 
mountains around answered the description of either Mount Brown 
or Mount Hooker. 

The interesting discovery was also made that the glacier-torrents 
which have their sources in the Columbia Ice-field drain into three 
different oceans — i.e. , those on east and south-east into the Saskatche- 
wan and Hudson's Bay, those on the north and north-east into the 
Athabasca and the Arctic Ocean, and those on the west into the 
Columbia River and the Pacific. 

A day or two later, taking with us three of the men and eight 
horses, with provisions for four or five days, we went northward down 
the East Athabasca (also called the Sun Wapta River), and ascended 
a peak of 11,500 feet near the northern boundary of the ice-field. We 
named this mountain Diadem, on account of the shape of its summit, 
and from it were able to see to the north and north-west a wild, unex- 
plored region of rocky peaks and deeply-eroded valleys, without any 
very extensive snow-fields, and we also noticed that the highest moun- 
tains were those situated round the Columbia Ice-field. Professor 
Collie has determined the positions of and given names to all these 
peaks, the highest being Mount Bryce (ca. 12,000 feet) near the 
southern margin,, Moimt Columbia (oa. 12,500 feet) near the western 
margin, and Mount Alberta (ca. 12,500 feet) near the northern margin 
of the ice-field. 

The long spell of hot weather now came to an end, and rain set 
in for several days, and as our food was nearly exhausted, we started 
on our return to Bear Creek ; the rain seemed to have extinguished 



72 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical bociety. 

the forest fires, and for the first time for more than three weeks we 
obtained perfectly dear distant views. 

On our way dawn the North Fork we were able to follow the old 
Indian trail on the east side of the valley, and made sudi good 
progress that in one day a distance was covered which had occupied 
us for five days on the outward journey. 

Hie weather was now much cooler, the rivens instead of being 
laden with glacier mud were almost dear, and had fallen so much 
that it was possible to cross the Saskatchewan bdow the influx of the 
North Fork at a point which had been unfordable a month esrher. 
After leaving Bear Creek Mouth we varied our retium journey by 
ascending Bear Greek Valley to the Bow Pass. Frosty nights denoted 
the approach of winter, and during the ascent to the pass we were 
overtaken in a bad bit of burnt timber by a heavy anowstorm. 
- The following day \he Bow Pass (6,800 feet) was crossed in such 
brilliant weather that we were able to identify several of the high 
mountains near the Columbia Ice-field more than forty miles away to 
the north-west. During the journey down the Upper Bow Valley our 
stock of food ran very short, and we were finally reduced to scanty 
rations of bread and tea, supplemented on the last night by a few 
trout caught in the Bow River; but on. September 8th, after a 
desperate struggle with the formidable belt of burnt timber, we 
arrived at Laggan — having been absent forty days^— and immediately 
celebrated our return by demolishing cold ribs of beef which we 
were fortunate enough to find at the railway station. 

We had failed to re-establish the time-honoured but fabulous 
supremacy of Mounts Brown* and Hooker ; but had been well repaid 
for OUT trouble by the discovery of the Columbia loe-fidds and of the 
high mountains which surround it. 

Since 1898 the West Branch of the North Fork of the Saskatchewan 
has been explored by Mr. C. S. Thompson, of DaUaa, Texas, in 1900, 
and by the Rev. Jas. Outram in 1902. 

Professor Collie and Mr. Stutfidd have also made two further 
journeys, visiting the Columbia Valley or western sideof the watershed 
in 1900, and the head of the Middle Fork of the Saskatchewan in 
1902, and Professor Collie has embodied the results of these explora- 
tions in the admirable map published in the " (reographical Journal," 
May, 1903. 

In this map all the blanks have been filled up firom the Sifileur 
Valley on the east to the Columbia River on the west, and the survey 
of the main chain has been carried to a point about 90 miles north- 
west of Laggan. It will be invaluable to everyone bent on visiting 
those wonderful solitudes, where the North Saskatchewan and the 
Al^abasoa Rivers have their sources in the glaciers of the continental 
watershed. 



* The Timiu AtlM now Msigns to Mount Brown 9,0(0 feet, the height estizDated by Profesaor 
Coleman. 



The Partition of Sakhalin, 



73 



THE PAHTITION OF SAKHAUN.* 

ONE of the resiQts of the treaty of peace between Japan and Russia 
was the partition of Sakhalin, so that the southern part of the 
island has come into the possession of Japan, llie boundary between 
the Japanese and Russian territories is a line coinciding with the 




SAKHAUN 

% Harbor or 

Roadstead 

• Coat 
■■• Coast ftsheries 
~ H<9^onroad 

3cah of miles. 
I ■ I I I 

50 iCO 



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9 5d 







'sakotrsk 



YeSO I.r\f^^'*^ci5tfromGreen»vKh * 



fiftieth parallel of north latitude. As the northern or Russian part of 
Sakhalin is wider than the southern part, Russia retains more than 
one^half of the area, and, as far as is yet known, the larger area of 
coalfields, which thus far appear to be the most important source of 
mineral wealth. 

Japan's territory, on the other hand, being farther south, is some- 
what superior in climatic conditions, and therefore in agricultural 



* lUpfroduced, by penniMloD, from the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, 
December, 1905. 



74 Tlie Journal of the Manchester Qeographical Society. 

prospects. There is little opportunity, however, for very important 
fanning development, as the gzowing season is too short, even in the 
south, to mature cereals, though large quantities of other vegetable 
food may be raised. 

The great attraction of the island for the Japanese was the fishing 
banks along parts of the coasts, which are rich in fiah food, and may 
be developed into fisheries of very large importance. The portions of 
the coastline where these fisheries are of most value are marked on 
the map, and it will be observed that the most extensive of the 
fishing grounds have come into possession of the Japanese. Another 
source of wealth by which the Japanese will profit is the fur animals, 
and especially the sable. As yet the forests of Sakhalin have been 
little hunted for them, though the leading fur animals of Siberia 
abound there. 

Sakhalin lies off the east coast of Siberia, between 45^ 54' and 
54° 24' N. Lat., and is separated from the mainland by the Gulf and 
Strait of Tartary, the latter being very narrow at about latitude 52°» 
and full of sandbanks. The island is about 600 miles long, and from 
16 to 100 miles wide. A mountainous ridge runs along the island for 
the whole of its length, flanked by low sandstone hills to the east and 
west, but of greater extent on the east. There are two principal rivers, 
both reaching the sea on the east ; the Tim, flowing northward into Nyi 
Bay, and the Poronai, flowing southward into Patience Gulf. 

Mr. L. v. Dalton, who has recently visited the island, states that 
much of the summer weather is the finest that could be wished for, 
while the winters, though cold, are dry and healthful. Three-fourths 
of the island is covered with dense pine forests. In the north are 
also larch and birch, while in the south are the maple, oak, ash, 
bamboo, cork-tree, and other sub-tropical trees or shrubs. The fauna 
includes the bear, fox, sable, wolf, reindeer, and the small striped 
squirrel of Northern India ; while in the rivers or along parts of the 
coast seal, salmon, and more southern fish abound. I^e spouting of 
Greenland whales is no uncommon sight on the coast washed by the 
Okhotsk Sea. 

The total number of inhabitants is about 36,000, of whom only 
4,000 are natives. Nearly all the present white population consists 
of convicts and Russian officials and soldiers. I^e Russians are for 
the most part confined to two districts — one around Alexandrovsk on 
the west coast, and the other around Ehorsakovsk on Aniva Bay in 
the extreme south. The principal prisons are at those two places, 
with a large sub-prison at Rikovsk. 

The native population is composed of about 2,000 Gilyaks, 1,300 
Ainujs, 750 Orotchons, and 200 Tungus. Scanty though the population 
is for the size of the island, Sakhalin has no lack of resources — 
vegetable, animal, and mineral. The coal of the Dui-Alexandrovsk 
mines has been worked for many years, and gold and other metals 
occur at many points, though an obstacle in the way of mining is 
the fact that in the northern forests the soil continues frozen below a 
depth of four feet. 

The annexation by Japan should benefit the southern part of the 
island, as the convicts have had no interest in the island's resources, 
and so have not helped their development. 



Report of Annual Meeting. 75 



ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, 1906. 

The Twenty-first Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Lord 
Mayor's Parlour, Town Hall, on Tuesday, June 12th, 1906, at 3-30 p.m. 

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor (Councillor J. Herbert Thewlis, 
J.P.) presided, and was supported by the Rev. S. k. Steinthal, F.RQ.S., 
Mr. D. A* Little, Alderman Wm. Norquoy, Alderman John Griffiths, 
Councillor C. Behrens, Messrs. Joel Wainwright, J.P., A. C. Magian, 
M.D., F.R.G.S., J. S. Reid, J. Howard Reed, Richardson Campbell, 
T. W. Sowerbutts, Robert Stewart, A* Goodwin, H. Sowerbutts, and 
others. 

The minutes of the Twentieth Annual Meeting, held May 10th, 1905, 
were taken as recul, having already appeared in the Journal, 

An apology for unavoidable absence from Mr. S. Oppenheim, J. P., 
was read. 

After proofs of the following report and balance sheet had been given 
to each member present, the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. David A. Little, 
explained and reported upon the accounts : — 

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL OF THE MANCHESTER 

GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 

ENDING DECEMBER Slst, 1905. 

In presenting their report of the work of the Society for 
the year the Council take the opportunity of congratulating tlie 
members upon two most interesting and important events whioh have 
occurred during that period. On October 15th the Society completed 
the twenty-first year of its operations, and on the 19th of the same 
month thia anniversary was celebrated in a most satisfactory manner 
by the opening of its new premises in St. Mary's Parsonage. 

The Council feel that the Society is much indebted to those 
members who took the initiative in the formation of the Geographical 
Society Building Company Limited, by whose efforts the splendid 
building was erected in which the Society now has its permanent 
home. Special thanks are due to Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., and 
Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., who generously took upon themselves the 
burden and responsibility of accepting legal liability to the ground 
landlords until tJie company could be formed and the necessary capital 
raised. Hie Society is likewise indebted to those members who 
severally subscribed the whole of the capital required for the erection of 
the building, and especially to those who, acting as directors, under the 
guidance of Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., have succeeded eo admirably in 
the work undertaken by them. 

The new Rooms afford a splendid opportunity for pushing forward 
the useful work of the Society. The Council trust that the members 
will rise to the opportunity which is presented, and by using their 
influence among their friends will add very materially to the member- 
ship roll. 

The completion of the twenty-first year of the Society's work and 
occupation of the new premises were jointly celebrated at the opening 



76 The Journal oj the Manchester Oeogra/phical Society, 

function, which took place on October 19Ul The Right Hon. the Lord 
Mayor of Manchester (Sir Thomafi Thomhill Shann) veiy kindly 
responded to the invitation of the Council, and performed the opening 
ceremony, being well supported by many important Manchester 
citizens, the majority being also well-known members of the Society. 

A full account of the proceedings connected with these important 
events has already appeared in the Journal. 

The Ordinary Meetings have been held frequently; fortnightly 
during the early part of the year, and weekly since the opening of 
the new hall. 

The Council are pleased with the large attendance at the meetings, 
which is evidence of the satisfaction of the members with the present 
improved acooramodation. The well-attended meetings have been 
most encouraging to the lecturers, and have stimulated them to do 
justice to the subjects with which they have dealt 

The lectures have been of a varied and interesting character, as 
will be seen from the following list: — 

" Interesting Reminiscences of the Life of William Cowper (Poet), 
his Rural Walks in and about Olney, etc." Mr. John R. Smith. 

" East Anglia, Cromer, the Norfolk Broads, and Ely." Mr. J. J. 
Gleave. 

" Up the Mediterranean : Places I have visited and People I have 
met.'' Rev. Fred A. Rees (Rhysfa). 

" Eastern Persia." Mr. H. R. Sykes, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

"Ceylon, with a Retrospective Glance." Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., 
F.R.G.S. 

" The Deccan and the Mahrattas."Mr. E. E. Lafond. 

"The Tibet Expedition." Major C. H. D. Ryder, R.E., F.R.G.S. 

"Through Yunnan to Tonquin." Mrs. A. J. Little. 

"From Tai Yuan fu to Hankow." Mr. R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

' Congo." Rev. R. D. Darby. 

" From Capetown to Cairo." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

"The Ancient Phallic Temples of the Great Zimbabwe, Rhodesia." 
Mr. R. N. HaU, F.R.G.S. 

"The Canadian Rocky Mountains." Mr. Hermann Woolley, 
F.R.G.S. 

"Experiences in America." Rev. F. A. Rees. 

" Marvels of the Subterranean World (The Jenolan Caves, N.S.W.)." 
Mr. F. Lambert, F.R.G.S. 

"The Growth, Importation, Manufacture, etc., of Cotton." Mr. 
J. B. Brown. 

"Weather Forecasting." Mr. William Marriott, F.R.MetSoc. 

"The Botanical Geography of a Pennine Stream." Mr. C. R 
Moss, B.Sc. 

"Geography in Schools." Mr. H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

" Geography in our Business." Mr. William Harper. 

" Geography in our Pleasures." Mr. J. Howard Reed, 

The excursions arranged were satisfactory, the most successful one 
being that under the guidance and hospitality of our esteemed friend 
and hon. member, Mr. Joel Waiuwripfht, J.P. 

It has only been possible during the year to issue the Journal 
for the last nine months of 1904. 



Report of Annual Meeting. 77 

By issuing the volumes for 1905 and 1906 in half-yearly parts 
instead of quarterly ones as usual, the Council hope to bring the 
Journal up to date, but this will only be possible if funds are made 
available by a large accession of new members in the immediate 
future. 

The Council have again to regret a heavy loss by death. Among 
the members whose decease is deplored may be mentioned : — 

Lady Leech Mr. Wm. Johnson 

Mr. Edward Behrens Mr. J. R. Pascoe 

Mr. Thomas Banks Mr. Herbert Philips, J.P. 

Councillor S. Cowan Mr. H. M. Steinthal 

Mr. Walter Curbstone Mr. J. W. Watkinson 

Mr. Rudolph Dehn Mr. H. Wood 

Mr. J. T. Doyle 

The additions to the Library, Map Room, and Museum have been 
continued during the year, con^sting mainly of exchanges for the 
Journal of the Society. 

The Victorians have again given active service, chiefly by lecturing, 
for the affiliated societies. Their annual report is presented herewith. 

The Council gratefully acknowledge the services of Mr. J. D. 
Wilde, M.A., of Highbury House School, St. Leonards-on-Sea, in 
kindly drawing up the three sets of questions for the children, which 
have been issued with the Notices to Members, and also for examining 
the replies which have been received. 

Mr. Wilde's report will be found on page 78. 

The Council would be encouraged if a larger number of the children 
of the members would take an interest in these geographical competi- 
tions, and make a point of regularly replying to the questions set. 
They feel that an interesting and useful educational opportunity is 
lost by those who neglect the questions, and they appeal to the 
parents to endeavour to stimulate the young people in so useful an 
effort. 

The balance sheet for the year, with the report of the Hon. Auditor, 
is presented herewith. 

With a view to the new premises being made as comfortable as 
possible on occupation, an appeal was made to the members for a 
special fund to meet the cost of furnishing, and to liquidate the 
outstanding debt with which the Society was saddled. The Council 
asked for £600, but, although a considerable number of the members 
responded very liberally, only £341 has up to the present been 
subscribed. The result has been that the furnishing committee have 
not been able to carry out the work on such a scale as the premises 
demand, although the best has been done with the money at their 
disposal. The fund, however, is still open, donations are still being 
received, and the CouHcil trust that those who have not hitherto 
subscribed will see their way to do their part. The Council desire 
heartily to thank those who have so liberally supported tiiis fund, 
tendering their thanks to Mr. E. W. Mellor for the valuable electric 
lantern presented by him, and also to Mr. J. J. Cleave for a suite of 
f\jmiture for the Members^ Room. 



78 Tlie Joamid of Ute Alomchester Geographical Society. 

There was an exceptional outlay incurred in connection with the 
opening and anniversary celebrations, but otherwise the expenaes for 
the year have been reduced to the lowest point possible. It ia evident 
that if the work of the Society is to be carried on in a satisfactory 
manner an increased income is a necessity. The Council feel 
that now that the Society has secured such satisfactory and well- 
appointed premises they can with confidence appeal to the members 
to do all they can to enlarge the membership roll. As was stated 
b^ Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., on the occasion of the opening, the 
city of Manchester should certainly be able without difficulty to supply 
a membership of at leaat two thousand, and this is the figure at which 
the Council with confidence aim ultimately to attain. 

Even half this number would place the Society in a very satisfactory 
position, and the members are reminded that if each one of them 
would make a point of introducing one other during the coming year 
the Society would be in a very enviable position. It is felt that with 
a united effort such a result ia well within reach, and the Council 
earnestly request each one to do his or her part. With the present 
inadequate income the work of the Society is crippled and retarded, 
whilst any extension of effort is out of the question. If, howefver, the 
members will only do their individual part, the future is filled with 
promise. 

THE REPORT OF THE HON. EXAMINER IN GEOGRAPHY. 

Again the time has come round for me to examine the answers of 
your young people to the questions set tihem in the Society's publicar 
tion& Owing to the changes in the issue of these publications the 
nimiber of questions has been much less than in former years, only 
three having been set. On the other hand, the number of candidates 
has increased, and has exceeded not only last year's figures, but even 
those of the year before. The improvement in the standard of excellence 
which I reported last year has been maintained, and many of the 
maps submitted (which I am sending with this report) are really very 
good, especially those of the East Indian Archipelago. These m&ps 
show that a simple intelligent method of projection has been tiuight 
and learnt. On the other hand, the maps of the North Sea show 
that there are still geographers who have not grasped the fact that 
a degree of longitude in that locality is less than a degree of latitude. 

Sixteen candidates have sent in replies, and all have answered 
every one of the three questions. The maximum of marks attainable 
was 100, and the actual numbers attained are as follows : — 

Juniors (undir 10). 
None. 

MiDDLB (10 TO 12). 

• 

F. Davenport 48 

T. Peacock 60 

E. WaJlwork 60 

B. Worsley 83 

J. Broadhurst 89 PWac 



Report of Annual Meeting ^ 79 

Seniobs. 

F. Hollingwortli 54 

W. Bowler 57 

E. Richmond 58 

A. Appleton 62 

A. Peacock 66 

R. Bentley 84 

W. Baguley 88 

H. Bentley 90 

F.Wood 95 

A. Davenport 96 

E. Halliwell 98 Prize, 

It will be noticed that the competition for the first place in the 
Senior Division is very close, and that a wide gap follows the second 
in the Middle. If the funds at your disposal permit, I shall be pleased 
to recommend A. Davenport, F. Wood, and B. Worsley for additional 
prizes. 

Jas. D. Wildh, M.A., 

Principal of Highbury House School, 
St. Leonards-on-Sea, Examiner. 



REPORT OF THE "VICTORIANS,'' 1906-1906. 

The useful work of lecturing upon subjects of geographical interest 
has been carried on as in former years by the members of this section 
of the Manchester Geographical Society. They have been the means 
of reminding the Literary Societies and Educational Committees 
existing in the populous towns surrounding Manchester of the great 
value of the Central Executive in its object to disseminate geographical 
information, and have also inspired many to enrol themselves as 
permanent members of the Society. 

All the lecturers gratuitously volunteer their services, and illustrate 
the addresses by specially-made lantern slides. The "Victorians" 
possess about 5,000 of these slides, which may be said in the aggregate 
to represent the vicissitudes of human life and habitations, scenery and 
surroundings, over every portion of the discovered world. 

One feature of the work of the ** Victorians " is to undertake to 
interest and amuse the children of members one night during the 
session — ^usually in January — and this Children's Party was again a 
great success, being anticipated for weeks, and especially by those 
boys and girls who have competed for the prizes given by Hie Society 
for answering questions in geography during the previous year. Mrs. 
Sowerbutts, widow of the late esteemed Secretary, was kind enough 
to distribute the prizes, and the customary cake was presented by 
Professor Swallow, of China, 

In order to increase the number of lectures, it is essential that the 
liet of lecturers be strengthened, and the " Victorians " invite any of 



80 The Jaumdl of the Ma/nchester QeographiooU Society. 

the members of the Geographical Society who are willing to aid in this 
educational work to send their names to the Hon. Secretaiy. 

The following is a list of lectures deliTered during the season 
1905-1906:-- 

Ootober, 1905. 

23 — ^Leigh (Literary Society). " From Capetown to Cairo." Mr. J. 
Howard Reed. 

24-— 'Middleton (Literary and Scientific Society). *'Up the Mediter- 
ranean." Rev. F. A. Rees (Rhysfa). 

28— ^Highbury House School. *' South Africa." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

30— Farnworth-with-Keaxsley P.C.M.I. Society. "Three Hundred 
Miles' Tour in Devon." Mr. R. Stewart 

November 

8 — Whdtefield (Mij» Philips). '* Western Highlands and Islands of 
Scotland." Mr. J. S. Reid. 

14— Heywood (Rev. A. Redman). ** From Capetown; to Cairo." Mr. 
J. Howard Reed. 

14 — 'Jiiiddleton (Literary and Scientific Society). *' Conneniara and the 
Western Highlands of Ireland." j^. M. W. Thompstone. 

16 — Stretford (Rev. F. A. Reee). "Japan: the Land of the Rising 
Sun." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

23-^Cheetham HiU (St. Mark's Literary Society). ** Belgium." Mr. 
J. Howard Reed. 

December 

9 — Crossley Sanatorium (Mr. C. Roeder). Mr. J. Howard Reed. 
January, 1906. 

15— Leigh (Literary Society). '' Interesting Reminiscences of the Life 
of William Cowper, Poet, etc." Mr. John R. Smith. 

17 — ^Patricroft (Eccles Co-operative Society). " Scottish Scenery, 
Song, and Story." Mr. J. S. Reid. 

31— 'Urmston (Eccles Co-operative Society). ** Japan : the Land of the 
Rising Sun." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

February 

5 — ^Famworth-with-Kearsley P.C.M.L Society. " Interesting Remini- 
scences of the Life of William Cowper, Poet, etc." Mr. J. R. 
Smith. 

7— Whitefield (Miss Philips). "Isle of Man." Mr. H. C. Martin, 
F.R.G.S. 

March 

26— *Famwortfi-with-Kearsley P.C.M.I. Society. "From Capetown 
to Cairo." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 



Report of AwmuU Meeting. 



81 






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82 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographioal Society. 



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84 The Jowmal of the Utmcheater Geogra/phical Society. 
LIST OF DONATIONS. 

(See v^ 88.) 



£ B. d. 
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., 

F.R.G.S 25 

Mra. RyUndB 26 

Mr. Joel Wainwright, J.P. ... 25 

Sir W. H. HouldBworth, Bart. 20 

ThelateMr.H.PhiUpB,J.P.... 20 

Sir Wm. Mather 10 

Mr. W. J. Robertson 10 

Mr. Hermann WooUe7,F.R.Q.S. 10 

Mr. A. J. S. Blea 5 6 

Mr. J. C. Chorlton, J.P. 5 6 

Mr. C. E. Schwann, M.P 6 6 

Sir F. Forbee Adam, CLE. ... 5 

Mr. W. A. Arnold 6 

Mr. W. J. CroBBley, MP 5 

Mr. Geo. Galloway, J.P 6 

Mr. E. W. Greg, J.P., CO., 

F.R.G.S 5 

Mr. W. G. Groves, J.P 6 

Mr. George Hadfield, J.P 6 

Mr.N. Kolp 6 

Mr. D. A. Little 6 

Mr. F.Mehl 6 

Mr.E.DelmarMorgan,F.R.G.S. 6 

Mr. S. Oppenheim, J.P 6 

Mr. J. B. Parkinson 6 

Mr. Edward Pilkington, J.P. ... 6 

Councillor John SiMddon 6 

Mr. G. 8. WooUey 6 

Mr. F. Ashworth, J.P 8 3 

Suigeon-Major W. G. Black, 

F.R.C.S.E 8 8 

Mr. N. Bradley, J.P 8 8 

Mr. C. P. Scott, J.P 8 8 

Mr. George Thomas 8 8 

Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G. ... 2 2 

Mr. J. B. Close Brooks 2 2 

Colonel W. W. Clapham 2 2 

Mr. T. A. Crompton 2 2 

Alderman R. Gibson, J.P 2 2 

Councillor T. Hassall,J.P 2 2 

Mr. W. Booth Leech 2 2 

Brig.-Gen. Sir J. R. L. Mac- 

donald, R.E., K.C.LE, 2 2 

Mr.A. Midgley 2 2 

Oldham Free Public Library... 2 2 

Mr. Lawrence Pilkington 2 2 

Rev. F. A. Rees 2 2 



RcT. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. John Walkden, C.C 

Mr. FritE Zimmem 



a. d. 

2 

2 

2 



Mr. F. Badoliffe 2 

Rey. Canon F. C Smith, M.A., 

F.R.G.S 2 

The late Captain Ohas. Iliflfe... 16 



Mr. Richard Armistead 

Mr. C. H. Bellamy, F.R.G.S.... 

Mr. J. C. Blake, F.R.G.S 

Mr. Wm. Bradshaw 

Mr. C. Brier 

Mr. H.Brigg8 

Mr. W. H. Buckley, J.P 

Miss Crowther 

Mr. C. J. Daviee 

Mr. T. S. Deakin 

Alderman James Duckworth, 
M.P., F.R.G.S 

Mr. J. G. Groves, J.P 

Councillor A. Hail wood 

Mr. J. Howard Hall 

Mr. Wm. Hawkins 

Alderman W. T. Heap, J.P. ... 

Mr. R. P. Hewit 

Mr. J. Hindle. L.R.A.M 

Mr. Wm. Hodgson 

Alderman Sir Jas. Hoy, J.P.... 

Mr. R. H. Joynson, J.P 

Mr. James Lancaster 

The late Lady Bosdin Leech... 

Mr. J. T. Lewis, J.P 

Rev. S. McFarlane, LL.D 

Mr. H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S. .. 

Mr. A,Nea 

Mr. JeBseNeQd 

Mr. T. Newbigging, C.E. 

Mr. H. C. Pingstone 

Mr. C. E. Reade 

Mr. J. Howard Reed 

Mr. James Robertshaw 

Mr. G. H. Seed 

Mr. John R. Smith 

Councillor J. H. Thewlis (The 
Right Hon. the Lord Mayor 
of Mimchester) 

Mr. G. Hervey Wood 

Mr. J. Woolfenden, jun 

Right Jlev. Monsignor Gadd, 
V.G 















a 


















































































































































































10 0^ 



Report of Av/audL Meeting, 85 

UST OF DONATIONS— rCoiUiiMiedJ 



£. 8. d. 

Mr. H. Kirkpatrick, J.P 10 

Mr. T. F. Wainwrigbt 1 

Mi». C. H. Bayley 10 6 

Mr. G. A. Haze 10 6 

A. E.L 10 6 

Mr. H. Sowerbutta 10 6 

MiM M. W. Wallace 10 6 



£ 8. d. 

The late Miw K M. Gierke ... 10 

MiaaCollinge 10 

Mr. A- Goodwin 10 

Mr, T.Scott 10 

Mr. E. Steinthal 10 

Rev. P. A. McDermott 5 

Miss Woolston 6 



The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, in moving the adoption of the 
report and balance sheet, said that it seemed to him that the work of 
the Society was so good that criticism was needless. It should not be 
difficult, by a definite effort, to secure all the additional members that 
were required, and he hoped that that effort would be made. Since the 
new Rooms were opened the meetings had been more largely attended, 
showing that increased interest was being evinced in the proceedings of 
the Society. Personally, although he had not been able to attend, one 
of his great delights in connection with the Society was to read the 
Journal from time to time. He felt sure that it needed only a little 
commendation to the citizens to bring about a large accession of members. 

The Chairman of the Council (the Rev. S. A. Steinthal), in seconding 
the motion, which was adopted, remarked that they might fairly claim 
that in no season had more interesting or valuable papers been contri- 
buted than during the past year, and that this fact had been appreciated 
was shown by the large attendances. They had, however, to complain 
that Manchester and neighbourhood had not accorded to the Society that 
full measure of support which was wanted to carry out the great objects 
which they had in view. He sincerely hoped that there would be a 
large increase in the membership, so that the Treasurer, when he appeared 
before them at the next Annual Meeting, would have a more cheerful 
account to give of the finances of the Society than he was able to do on 
the present occasion. Mr. Steinthal added that he thought they were 
justified in saying that the present year showed a larger number of 
members as compared with 1905, so that at all events some advance had 
been made since the opening of the new Rooms. 

The Hon. Secretary (Mr. Reed) read the following recommendation 
of the Council : — 

'* That the retiring officers and Council be re-elected, with the addi- 
tion of Messrs. W. J. Crossley, M.P., Alderman James Duckworth, M.P., 
F.RG.S., and E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S., to the Vice-Presidents, and 
Messrs. J. McFarlane, MA., and H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S., to the Council." 

Mr. Joel Wainwrigbt, J.P., spoke in very appreciative terms of the 
services of the officers and Council of the Society during the past year 
in the special circumstances occasioned by the opening of the new Rooms 
and the celebration of the 21st anniversary, and said that it gave him 
very great pleasure to move the following resolution : — 

*' That the best thanks of this meeting be given to the officers and 
Council for their services during the past year, and that the retiring 
officers and Council, together with the five named, as recommended by 
the Coimoil, be elected as the Council and officers for the ensuing year." 



86 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 



Mr. J. S. Reid, in seconding the resolution, also expressed his appre- 
ciation of the work of the Society during the year, and of the indebtedness 
of the members to their venerable Chairman for his long and continued 
services to the Society. 

The officers and Council, as given in the following list, were elected 
unanimously : — 

Ipreflibntt. 
Hia Royal HlghnMB the FRINGE OF WALKS, K.O. 

Vitt-iPrtttbtntii. 



HIb Qraca the Dukb or Dkvokshirs, K.O. 
The Right Hon. the Earl of Dbrby, K.G. 
The Rjffht Hon. the Earl BontTON or 

Tattoh. 
The Right Rev. tlie Bishop or SALroRD. 
The Bight Hon. the Lord Mayor or 

MAMOnnTBR. 

Hie Worship the Mayor or Oldham. 
His Worship the Mayor or Saltord. 
The Vicb-Ohamcbllor or Victoria Umi- 

YKRSITT. 

The Rlfigit Rot. Monsignor Gadd, V.G. 
Sir W. H. Houldsworth, Bart. 
The HoK. W. Rothschild, M.P. 
Sir H. F. DE TRArroRD, Bart 
Sir Frank Forbbs Adaw, G.I.E. 
Sir W. H. Holland, M.P. 
Alderman Sir Bosoin T. Lkbch, J.F. 
Sir Joseph Lbioh, J. P. 
Sir William Mathbr, J. P. 



Mr. Frrdkric Burton. 
Mr. J. F. Chxbtham, M.P. 
Professor T. H. Oors, M.A. 
Mr. W. J. Crosslsy, M.P. 
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, J.P., F.R.S. 
AldermAD Jambs Duckworth, M.P., F R.O.S. 
Mr. J. G. Grovbs, J.P. 
Mr. J. S. BioHAM, M.P. 
Mr. E. W. Mbllor, J.P.. F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.8., Fiw- 
Chaimum of the CouncU, 

Mr. 8. QPPBNHBIM, J.P. 

Mr. J. Howard Rerd. 

Mr. G. E. Schwann, M.P. 

Mr. C. P. Scott, J.P. 

Mr. H. Sowlbb, J.P. 

Roy. S. a. Stbikthal, F.R.G.a, Chairman, 

o/ the Council. 
Mr. J. D. Wildb, M.A. 

Mr. F. ZiMMERK. 



Mr. H. Nuttall, M.P., F.R.6.8. Mr. Sydnby L. Kktukr, F.R.G.8. 

Mr. B. W. Mbllom, J.P., F.R.G.8.. 

Sonoms CrtHinrrr. 
Mr. Dayid a. Little. 

DoRomrs J^tcntaitcn. 
Mr. F. ZiMMBRN. I Mr. J. Howard Rbbd. 

Mr. C. A. Clarke (Hon. SeciVio.). 



Council. 



Mr. J. E. Balmer. F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Jas. Barningham. 
Mr. G. T. Bowks. 
Mr. J. C. Chorlton, J.P. 
Mr. 0. Collmank, 

Consul for German Empire. 
Lieut. -Col. U. T. Crook, J.P., C.E. 
Major E. W. Grbo. J.P., O.G., F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Councillor T. Hasball. J.P. 
Mr. A. J. Kennedy, F.E.O.S. 



Mr. N. Kolp. 

Mr. John McFarlanb, M.A. 

Mr. H. G. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. T. C. Middlbton, J.P. 

Mr. It. C. Phillips. 

Mr. Councillor John Snaddon. 

Mr. T. W. SOWERBCTTS. 

Mr. Grorge Thomas. 

Mr. Hermann Woollbt, F.R.G.S. 



Mr. Dayid A. Little moved, Mr. J. Howard Heed seconded, and it 
was unanimously resolved — **That the best thanks of the Society be 
tendered to Mr. Theodore Gregory, F.C.A., for his services as Hon. 
Auditor, and that he be re-appointed for the coming year." 

It was moved by Dr. A. C. Magian, F.R.G.S., seconded by Alderman 
John Griffiths, and resolved unanimously and with applause — "That the 
best thanks of the meeting be tendered to the Lord Major for the use 
of his parlour, and more especially for his kindness in presiding over the 
meeting.'* 



Proceedings. 87 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 

January Ist to Junk 30th, 1906. 



The 713th Meeting of the Society was held in the Qeographioal Hall, 
OB Saturday, January 6th, 1906, in the form of a party for the children of 
the members. 

Hie Victorians received Hhe children at 6 p.m. Befreshmenta and 
games oocnpied the first hour, and then thexe was an eiiibition of lanteni 
•lidee, kindly lent by Mr. F. J. Payton. 

At 6^0 p.an. the "Scarlet Minstrel Troupe" gave a very intererting 
entertainment, much enjoyed by all present. 

At 7-30 p.m. Mr. C. A. Glaske read the Beport of the Hon. Examiner, 
Mr. J. D. Wilde, M.A. (see page 78), and Mrs. Eli Sowzbbutts pre- 
sented the prizes awarded by Mr. Wilde. 

Mrs. SowBBBUTTS, with the help of the Victorians, cut and dietriibuted 
the Christmae Cake, which wias cigain kindly provided by Professor B. "^ 
Swallow, B.Sc, of Tai Yuan fu, China. 

A hearty vote of thanks was passed to the " Scarlet Minstrel Troupe, 
Mrs. Eli Sowerbutts, and the other helpers. The Chaibmak of the Minatrek 
Troupe made a suitable response. 

The evening's proceedings concluded with games and dancing. 



The 714tih Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 9th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. B. Gbahah Bubton. 

The Minutes of the Meetings held on December 19th, 1906, and 
January 6th, 1906, were approved. 

The election of the following five members was announced: — 

Obdinaby: Messrs. I. P. Carson, George Ginger, Alfred Balmforth, 
and Harold FOber. 

Associate: Miss Lily Warburton. 

The presentation by Mr. N. Eolp of a fully-illustrated book, entitled 
*' Japon," by M. F^lix B6gamey, was mentioned hj the Chairman. 

Mr. Matthew Ingbax gave an account of a business visit to Denmark. 
Tbe address was illustrated with lantern slides. 

Mr. B. C. PhuiLipb moved, and Mr. Bichabbson Caxpbell seconded, 
a vote of thanks to Mr. Ingram for his address, and it was carried. 



The 715th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 23rd,. 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. Mr. J. Howabd Beed in the chair. 

Tbe Minutes of the Meeting held on January 9th were approved. 



88 The Journal of the Mcmcheeter Oeographical Society. 

The election of the following members was aanoiuioed: — 

Obdikasy : Messrs. Thomas Biley and James Johnson. 

Abbooiatb : iMis. Knox Taylor. 

Captain J. SrxPHaKSOir, of tlie Indian Medical Serrioe, addressed tlie 
members on "The Punjab and its People." (See page 26.) The address 
was illustrated with lantern elides. 

Councillor Johk Snaddok moved, Mr. J. J. OiiXATX seconded, and it 
was lesolyed, that a hearty rote of thanJcs be given to Captain Stephenson 
for Ids interesting addrees. 



The 7l6th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 6tlL, 
1006, at 7-30 .p.m. Alderman Sir Bosdik T. Lugh, J.P., Yice-PresideBt. 
in tlie chair. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 23rd were taken as read. 

The CHAnucAN announced the election of Field-Marshal the Bight Hon. 
Earl Boberts of Kandahar, Y.C., E.G., etc., as an honorary member, and 
Mr. C. Owen Hockin as an ordinary member. 

Mr. A. C. Magian, M.D., F.B.G.S., addressed the Society on "A Visit 
to Japan." (See Vol. XXI., page 140.) The address was illustrated with 
a large number of lantern slides. 

Mr. B. C. Phillips moved, Mr. S. Massby seconded, and it was 
unanimously resolved, that a hearty vote of thanks be given to Dr. Magian 
for his interesting addiess. 

Dr. Magian responded. 



The 717th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 13th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. B. Cobdbn Phillips. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 6th, 1906, were taken 
as read. 

Mr. J. B. Bbown gave the second part of his address on "The Growtk, 
Importation, Manufacture, etc., of Cotton; the Staple Trade of Lanca- 
shire." He dealt more particularly with tbe manufacture of cotton and of 
the value of the trade to Manchester, illustrating bis remarks with a large 
number of original lantern slides. 

Mr. J. C. Atkins (Secretary of the British Cotton Growing Associa- 
tion) moved, and Mr. McNeil seconded, a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. 
Brown for bis interesting address, and it was supported by Mr. Ishbb- 
wooD, and unanimously carried. 

Mr. Bbown responded. 



The 718th Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, February 16tii, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. C. A. Clabblb. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 13th, 1906, were approved. 

The Chaibhan anxM>unced the election of the following members: — 

Obdinabt: Miss Mathiaon, Mr. Bdbert Poppleton, Mr. James Wall- 
worth, Mr. Hy. Forsyth, Mr. F. W. Marrs, M.A., and Mr. J. Parker 
Milboume. 



Proceedings. 89 

Absociatb: Mus G. Bolivar. 

Mr. BoBBBT W. (Swallow, B.Sc., addressed the Society on bis 
" Chinoae ^xperienees." The addrees was illuatrated with lantern slides. 

A vote of thanks to Professor Swallow for his very interesting address 
was (moved by Mr. <M. W. Thompbtokb, seconded by Mr. B. C. Phillips, 
supported by Mr. W. Habpbb, ^and carried unanimously. 



The 719th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 20th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. Howabd Bebd. 

The Minutes of the Meeting' held on February 16th, 1906, were ai^roved. 

A lecture, entitled " Boman Bemains, their Witness to History," was 
delivered by the Bev. S. Hailstone, M.A. (See page 41.) The address 
was illustrated with lantern slides. 

A cordial vote of thanks to the lecturer for his interesting address was 
moved by Mr. S. Oppbkheim, J.P., seconded by Mr. J. J. G-leave, and 
carried unanimously. 



The 720th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 27th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. David A. Little. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 20th, 1906, were taken 
as read. 

The Bev. P. M. Higoinson, M.A., gave an address on a visit to 
" Baalbek," with special reference to recent disooveries there. The address 
wae illustrated with specially-prepared lantern slides. 

A vote of thanks to the lecturer for his address was moved by Mr. J. 
HowABB Bbbd, seconded by Mr. John B. Smith, supported by Messrs. 
J. J. Gleave, Councillor J. iSnaddon, and John Matheb, and carried. 



The 721st meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 6th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. B. C. Phillips (in the unavoidable 
abeence of Sir W. H. Vaudrey, J.P.). 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 27th, were approved. 

The election of the following new members was announced : — 

Obdinaby: Messrs. G. E. Walmsley, A. J. Ingham, Wm. Sivewright, 
Jacob Earnshaw, John A. Earnshaw, B. H. Prussmann, and Bev. Bd. 
Eubank. 

Associate : Miss Emma Lawton. 

Dr. T. Fbank Southam, of Bowdon, addressed the Sooiety on '* Some 
South Sea Islands — Beminiscences." The address was fully illustrated 
with lantern slides. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Dr. Southam was passed on the proposition 
of Mr. B. T. Millers, seconded by Mr. C. A. Clabxb. 



The 722nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 13th, 
1906. at 7-30 p.m. Mr. B. Cobden Phillips in the chair. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 6th, were approved. 



90 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society 

Mr. M. W. Thoicpstonx gave an address on " A Samble Throngk 
an XJndiscoyered Country, and the English Holland." Illustrated with 
original lantern slides. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Thompstone for his very interesting 
address was moved by Mr. Gxo. PsAsaoir, seconded by Mr. Bobskt 
STXW1.BT, supported by Mr. C. A. Cli.bkx, and passed unanimously. 



The 723rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 20th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. Mr. J. Howabd Rexd in the chair. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 13th were approved. 

The election of Miss B. Bentley and Mr. M. Silverstone as Oboiitabt 
members was announced. 

Dr. BoBXBT Gibson gave a lecture entitled " In and Around Hong 
Kong," illustrated with specially-prepaKed lantern slides. 

A very cordial vote of thanks to Dr. Gibson for his interesting addren 
was moved by Councillor J. Sneddon, seconded by Mr. B. C. Peiz.lip8» 
supported by Mr. B. I. Bblisha, and passed unanimously. 



The 724th Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, March 30th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Hibkann Woolley, F.B.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 20th were approved. 

The election of Mr. H. Preston as an Obdinabt member was announced. 

The Bbv. Waltxb Weston, M.A., F.B.G.S., addressed the members 
on " Six Seasons of Climbing and Obseryation in the Southern Alps of 
Japan." The address was illustrated with lantern slides coloured faj 
Japanese artists. 

The following Beport is from the Manchuter City News: — 

The Mountains of Japan. 

The mountain ranges of Japan, from their general formation, may 
be divided into two main systems, the northern and the southern, or the 
Bussian and the Chinese. The Chinese or southern system is connected 
with South-east China, and runs north-east by way of Formosa up into 
the mainland of Japan. The Bussian or northern, known to Japanese 
geographers as the Karafuto system, enters Japan from the north, and 
runa south-west until it meets the southern system in the middle of Japan. 
It thus becomes, ao to speak, the geological battleground of the two con- 
flicting chains, the Bussian and the Chinese. It is here, in the broadest 
part of the main island, that the deepest and wildest valleys are cleft, 
and the mountains rise to their loftiest heights in the picturesque summits 
known as the Japanese Alps. To-night I am to speak of joumejs during 
eight seasons in the southern half. This portion may be called the 
mountains of Koshu, from the remarkable province in or on the borders ol 
which most of the principal peaks are situated. The average height <^ 
the loftiest peaks is about ten thousand feet, but the character of the 



F^tvceedings. 91 

Bcenery, grand though it is, is hardly so wild and nigged as that of the 
barer, less richly-wooded mountains in the northern haH of the Japanese 
Alps. The nearest and most accessible town of importance is Koehn on 
the east, the capital of the province of that name. Koshn, which has a 
population of forty thousand, is one of the most progressive towns in Japan. 
It stands in a broad, fertile, mountain-circled plain, once probably the 
bed of an ancient lake, now dotted all over with thriving villages. It is 
the centre of a considerable commerce in silk, grapes, and sugar. Some of 
the silk filatures employ several hundred persons, chiefly girls, whose hours 
are said to be fifteen per day without a break for meals or even a Sunday 
holiday, and this continues all the year round with the exception of two 
months in the winter. 



An Abduous Climbing Feat. 

During my many expeditions, of which the climb of Kaigane, 
10,334 feet, the highest of the Koshu range, and the cuhninating peak of 
the central mass, may serve as a specimen of mountain travel in this 
region, I was accompanied by several sturdy native hunters. Up this fine 
peak I made the first ascent (by a foreign traveller) three years ago, 
repeating the climb last summer. A short day's journey westward across 
the Kofu plain, took me through a curious natural gateway in the foothills 
up a beautiful valley where Ashiyasu lies, 2,200 feet above the sea level, a 
hamlet of dark scattered chalets that cling with difficulty to the steep and 
broken slopes and ledges which rise above a wild torrent bed. A fatiguing 
scramble of five hours in a scorching sun placed us on the top of a ridge, 6,500 
feet high; a rough descent of four hours took us down to the bed of a 
picturesque torrent, and a still harder druggie of four hours was needed before 
we could shelter for the night higher up the valley. Sometimes we had to 
wade from side to side up to our waists in the ice-cold stream, or leap 
from rock to rock at the side. Occasionally we had to spend half an hour 
in felling and fixing a tree trunk, twenty or thirty feet in length, to serve 
as a bridge. Dayfight was dead, and the ravine wrapped in darkness before 
we could gain our bivouac, and the last hour's work was only accomplished 
by the faint glimmer of an Alpine lantern, when a slip, unroped as we 
unavoidably were, would have plunged one into the roaring, swirling 
torrent with little chance of rescue. Our fourteen hours' scramble at last 
ended at a spot where, at 5,500 feet, in the tangled undergrowth and trees 
on the left bank of the stream, a dilapidated hut of brick-bark betokened 
a shelter used by hunters and woodcutters, the sole visitors to this lonely 
valley. Here we spent two comfortable nights. On the second morning I 
started at early dawn with my two strongest men, leaving the third to 
guard the hut and our belongings in our absence. 



Ascent of the Highest Peak. 

Hiizan, the " Phcenix Peak," is one of the most striking summits in the 
granite range. Until last summer it was held to be inaccessible to human foot. 
To it the comment of a native Japanese geographer, speaking of this range, 
applies with striking force : " This is one of the most mountainous regions, 
and there are in it trackless wilds, for these mountains are almost beyond 



92 Tke Jay/mal of the Momcheder Geographical Society. 

the ability of human legs to climb." A hard climb northward of eight 
honrs landed hb at our bi'vonac, a rained woodman's shelter on the sonth 
flank of Hnzan. The altitude is eight thousand feet, and a crystal spring of 
ice-cold water rises hard by. A three hours' climb the next morning led us 
over the interrening peak, 9,700 feet, to a low saddle between it and Husan. 
Here my three hunters were thrown in a state of the greatest ezcitemeni 
by the appearance, on a sort of promontory jutting into a wild ravine on ib« 
left, of a chamois. Two of tnem flew off like monkeys to stalk the animal, 
and afterwards returned with the carcase of a fine buck about 
five years old, weighing seventy pounds. During their absence I con- 
tinued the ascent with my remaining companion. Of the success of the 
enterprise he proved sceptical, and grew even sarcastic as I urged him on. 
Up to a certain ledge at the base of the final pinnacle I induced him 
to come, but he stopped and refused to advance any further. Alone, 
therefore, I went on, the rocks, though steep, giving good hold everywhere, 
until at length I reached a small shelf two feet by eighteen inches, beyond 
which further progress seemed impossible. Above rose fifty feet of smooth 
granite at an angle of eighty degrees, with a jutting block near the top. 
Fastening a stone securely to- the end of one hundred feet of Alpine rope, 
I succeeded, after half an hour's tiring effort, in lodging this securely 
in the top of a tempting crack thirty-five feet above me. Holdiug the rope 
in my left hand to steady myself, I then managed to worm my way upward 
till further progress was barred by the overhanging block, which pushed 
me out and compelled me to loose the rope to obtain a firmer grip. A short 
rest for breath, then a final struggle, and I was over the obstacle. Above, 
the rock, though quite perpendicular, was fairly rough and afforded 
good hold. The last twenty feet was soon accomplished, and I stood on a 
spot hitherto untrodden by human foot. My hunter gazed up from far 
bjlow, half in alarm and half in amusement, but his relief when I rejoined 
him was quite touching to witness. 



Politeness and Hospitality of the People. 

There is a remarkable difference in the climatic conditions prevailing 
in the northern and southern parts of the Japanese Alps. In the 
former, near the Sea of Japan, the temperature is hotter in summer 
and colder in winter than in the latter,, towards the Pacific. The 
simple, unaffected poHteness and kindly hospitality one receives every- 
where leave the most delightful memories behind. Not only the village 
headmen, but even the local country police on the outskirts of the ranges 
are always ready to further one's plans to the beet of their power. A 
native to whom I once applied for information actually volunteered to 
climb the mountain with me, and proved a most excellent companion. 
He was very diminutive, but extremely dignified, and imperturbable 
under all circumstances. Even when one night I unluckily rolled out 
of my hammock and landed somewhat heavily on him as he lay snoring 
peacefully below, his sole comment was a word of polite apology, " I 
am so sorry to have been in your honourable way." As a rule the 
peasant folk are honest, a feature in which they distinctly excel the 
ordinary commercial classes in many of the larger more " civilised " 
towns. On our exi>editions my hunters were never idle, and even on 



Proceedings. 93 

off-days in camp tliey rarely rested. Nearly all their spare time was 
spent in fishing, making toys, and playing games, or occasionally 
writing notes of the journey. They invariably showed great interest 
in oar country, and for men of little education asked quite intelHgent 
questions. The headman, a sort of village Mayor, is a useful factor in 
the organisation of the country-side. Two years ago when engaged in 
the work of distributing relief sent by the foreign residents in Japan 
and China to alleviate the distress during the Aomori famine in 
northern Japan I was brought into close contact with many of them. 
During the preliminary work of investigation I found it possible almost 
at a moment's notice to obtain through the* headman of any village 
the minutest information of the circumstances of any g^ven family. 
On every hand one is reminded that Western civilisation has come 
to a people already possessing, to a high degree, those very capacities 
and faculties of assimilation that muM; enable them to adapt for their 
own purposes whatever they have adopted from the resources of Western 
people. To what extent they will succeed, however, as permanent Colonists 
on the mainland of Asia need not now be discussed. What is certain is 
that the new fields acquired by Japan on the mainland seem very 
favourable for the experiment. No less than seven-eighths of the area of 
Japan is mountain land, and of such a character as practically to pre- 
clude the permanent support of a rapidly-increasing population. Korea, 
however, with its hilts and forests, its mineral wealth and fertile plains, 
has been as yet comparatively little exploited, and c^ers exactly the 
colonising ground needed for the overflow of the swelling tide of Japanese 
life. 

A vote of thanks to the lecturer for his very interesting address and for 
the beautiful slides shown was moved by Councillor J. jSnaddok, seconded 
by Mr. B. Cobdxn PeiiiLIPS, and passed unanimously. 



The 725th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, April 3rd, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair. Libut.-Col. H. T. Csook, J.P., F.B.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 30th, 1906, were approved. 

Mb. E. W. Dakn, B.A., P.B.G.S., gave an address on " Orography and 
History," illustrated with a large number of Orographical Maps. (See 
page 56.) 

A vote of thanks to Mr. Dann for his interesting address was moved 
by Mr. B. C. Phillips, seconded by Councillor J. Snaddon, supported 
by Messrs. B. Cbosthwaite, M.A., B.Sc., Wk. Tubnbb, and Bobxbt 
Stewabt, and carried unanimously. 



ANNUAL DINNEB. 

The Annual Dinner of the Society was held at the Queen's Hotel on 
Tuesday, June 12th, 1906, at 7 p.m., with the Bev. S. A. Si^inthal, 
P.B.G.S., in the chair. The guest of the evening was. the Bight Hon. 
I^rd Stanley, K.C.V.O., C.B., F.B.G.S., and there were also present: 
His Worship the Mayor of Salford (Alderman Prankenbnrg), Messrs. E. 
W. Mellor, J.P. F.B.G.S., J. E. Balmer, F.B.G.S., S. Oppenheim, J.P., 



94 The Journal of the Manchester* Oeographical Society. 

D. A. Little^ F. Zimmern, J. Howard Beed, George Thomas, T. W. 
Sowerbutts. Hermann WooUey, F.B.G.S., J. McFarlane, M.A., H. C. 
Martin, F.E.Q.S., Jacob Eamahaw, W. A. Arnold, T. S. Deakin, G. G. 
Deakin, Frederick Heap, John Heya, Alderman John Grii&thB, F. S. 
Oppenheim, John B. Smith, F, Mills, E. Parkee (Town Clerk of Eodes), 
and othezB. 

After the nsnal loyal toaata had been honoured (the President, H.B.H. 
the Prince of Wales, being specially mentioned), tiie Chairman gave the 
toast of " Our Gnests," which was briefly acknowledged by Lord Stanley. 

Ijord Stanley then proposed the toast of " The ;ManchJBster Geo- 
graphical Society," and congratulated the Society on having attained its 
majority. Geography, he said, was one of the most ueefnl of sciences, but 
was none the less one of the least studied and least understood. It had 
been aaid that the only time English pe<^le concerned themselves with 
geography at all was when there was a question of a war. To a certain 
extent he believed that was true. He was quite sure there were certain 
incidents in our national life which al<Mie had brought to the minds of 
people of the country a knowledge of certain localities. He doubted 
whether until our little trouble with Turkey recently, many people in this 
country understood where the Turkish boundary ended and the lE^yptiau 
boundary began, and he was perfectly certain that until the war in South 
Africa people had very little idea of the geography of -South Africa. Nor 
had many people, perhaps, a great knowledge of China until they heard of 
Chinese labour. It was a fact that though people had a vague idea of the 
geography of the world they had very little idea of distances. He had, as 
the chairman had said, done some Uttle amount of travelling, but it was 
only as a sort of ordinary globe-trotter. But even travelling of that sort 
gave one a knowledge which he did not think could be got at home, the 
knowledge of distance, which was the most important part of the study of 
geography. 

But geography did not stop at the knowledge simply of the surface 
of the globe. Directly they learned that a certain place was at a certain 
distance from their own neighbourhood they tried to ascertain what sort 
of country it was, what was the character oi its inhabitcmts, and what 
was its history. The study of geography brought with it the further study 
of geology, and what, to his mind, was the still more interesting study of 
the history of the various localities. That was of great value in these days 
of extraordinary commercial competition and the fight for oommercial 
superiority, when it was essential that those who were engaged in oom> 
mercial pursuits should have a close acquaintance with the places to which 
they were sending their goods. Still more important waa it that they 
should know the people who lived in those places. Their Society, there- 
fore, in teaching geography in a commercial town, not only taught a 
subject of interest in itself, but they gave an additional aid to the com- 
mercial superiority of the town in which they lived. 

The study of geography, even in one's own experience, brought home 
to them two things. In the first place they realised how much of the globe 
waa indebted for its civilisation, its industry, and its cultivation to our 
forefathers. And when th^ recognised that, and recognised the diatance 
which was the keystone to geography, they had recognised what enormous 
enterprise and what extraordinarv courage were shown by those who had 



Proceedings. 95 

gone before to found other empires in other parts of the world. Then^ if 
they went outside that part of the globe which was " painted red " and 
proceeded to other and foreign localities^ surely their view of the world 
and of life was broadeoied. They no longer looked on life simply as it was 
within these small islands of ours; they recognised that there were other 
peoples with other manners and other customSj and they some- 
times found that these manners, customs^ and methods showed an 
improvement on our own. In this way such a society as theirs imparted 
the knowledge whereby they learned the nature and circumstances of 
foreign countries, and even in places where the flag that waved was not 
tlieir own they were able to keep the name of Great Britain paramount 
among the nations trading with those countries. 



A Nok-Pastisak Soohtt. 

Mr. J. HowABD Reed responded to the toast, and referred to the fact 
that until recently Lord Stanley had controlled " the largest staff of practical 
geographers to be found anywhere on the face of the- earth." Mr. Beed 
described the society as non-partisan in every sense of the word, and spoke 
with gratification of the fact that under their geographical banner all 
political parties and all religious denominations can meet on common ground 
and unite for a definite object — the increase and diffusion of geographical 
kzwwledge. He pointed out that one of the first aims of the Society, as 
explained in the Bules, was " to promote the study of all branches of 
Geographical Science, especially in its relation to commerce and civilisation." 
With the limited means at its disposal, the Society had done much to 
further that object, but he felt that the organisation, was not meeting 
with that support which it deserved from the commercial men of the 
district. The Society ought to have a far greater number of members than 
its present total of 600. If the city and surrounding districts would give 
them a membership al 2,000, the Society would be able to perform a work 
of which any great commercial city might well be proud. The new 
premises in which the Society was housed formed a splendid basis for 
larger work and increased usefulness, but until they had a' considerable 
accession of members the work would be crippled through lack of funds. 
Mr. Beed reminded the members that the furnishing fund was still open, 
and that only a little more than half of the ^600 afiked for had as yet been 
forthcoming. The speaker pointed to the Journal of the Society as a 
sample of the work done, and drew attention to the useful educational work 
carried on in the districts surrounding Manchester by the " Yictorians." 
He concluded by expressing himself as highly optimistic of the future of 
the Society, and made a strong appeal to all those present to do their 
part, in season and out of season, to lengthen the membership roll. 

Mr. £. W. Mellob, J.P., F.B.G.S., submitted the toast of "Man- 
chester and Salford," which was responded to by His Worship the Mayor 
of Salford. 

The Chaisiian proposed the " New Members of the Council " ; 
Messrs. J. McFarlane, M.A., and H. C. Martin, F.B.G.S., responded. 

Mr. F. S. OppBNHBnc, in graceful and f^citous terms, proposed the 
toast of the Chairman, aitd the response by Bev. S. A. Stein thai brought 
the proceedings to a close. 



96 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

The 727th Meeting of the Society wae held at Melaadra on Satnrd&y, 
June 23rd, 1906. 

Mr. B. Hamnxtt, Hon. Secretary of the Gloesop and District Anti- 
quarian and Natural History Society^ met the members at Gloasc^ Station^ 
and showed them at his rooms a selection of the relics found on the site 
of the Boman Camp. He gave a very intevesting account of the disooTeriee 
so far made and of the probable history of the camp. The party then 
proceeded by electric tram to near Melandra, and Mr. Hamnett led 
the way up the hill to the camp. A palisade has been erected by the 
Antiquarian Society to protect the site, itnd seems yery necessary, as even 
with that some damage has been done. The leader carefully described 
each gateway and the other objects to be seen, concluding with the 
foundations of the central building. 

Mr. J. J. Glxayx moved, Mr. J. Howabd Hall seconded, and it was 
carried unanimously that a hearty yote of thanks be tendered to Mr. 
Hamnett for his kindness in leading the party and explaining the varioiis 
points of intrest in so very clear a manner. Mr. Hamnett made a auit^ 
able response. 

NEW BOOK. 

'* A Progabssiye Coursb of CoicPABAnvB Gboobapht on thb Con- 
OBNTRic Ststbm." By p. H. UEstrange, B.A. Blustrated by 
177 Pictures and Diagrams in the text, and 172 Maps and 
Diagrams in colour. London: G^oige Philip and Son Ltd. 
1906. Price, 6s. net. 

Ths aim of " A Progressive Course of Comparative Qeography," as set oat 
in the preface, is admirable, and one must admit that to stimulate reason 
rather than train the memory, to gdive pupils the power to use facts and 
principles rather than store the memory with useless details, to educate 
rather than instruct, form a (high ideal worthy of ffreat praise, and one 
anxiously ondeavours to And out how the book fulfils this most de6iraft>le 
object. 

The maps generally are good; they have clear and well-marked outlines 
and bold and good type generally; they are free from lists of useless 
names and overcrowding, and many of them well illustrate the objects for 
which ther have been introduced. 

The viafue of synLbols for mountains, towns, rivers, etc., in many of the 
maps ie of doutbtful advantage, and to many will prove puasling, if not 
confusing, and the shading on a few would have been improved by a more 
distinct range of colouxe for heights of mountains and depths oi oceans. 
In some cases there is no reference to the figures, etc., in the text. 

The illustrations, pictures, diagrams, and tables are generally good, 
and should prove interesting and inetructive. The questions are very 
numerous and well arranged, and cover a wide range of geographical 
knowledge; but many of the questions make a great demand on the 
geographical intelligence of the pupil, or require a great deal of map study 
with little in the book to help. 

The book contains v«duable information, and is full of BUfi^geBtive 
matter, but to be of use as a course of geography it will need the skill and 
intelligence of a capable teacher, or the aid of a good and reliable text-book. 
One naturally asks: For what kind of pupil is the book intend^? Ji for 
young children, the matter in the first part particularly is too advanced, 
scrappy, and vague; there is no linking of lessons, and most of them pre- 
suppose a great deal of geographical Imowledge not contained in the book 
itself. 

The maps, illustrations, ind questions should prove of great value in 
revision work and for tests. 

H. C. M. 



THE JOURNAL 



OF THB 



MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 



AN UNDISCOVERED COUNTRY, AND THE ENGLISH HOLLAND, 

Bv Mabk W. Thompstone. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall^ on Tuesday, 
March 13th, 1906.] 

SOME ten years ago I had the pleasure of giving you an account of a 
holiday tour in the extreme west of the British Isles, through a 
district little known to the general public, and to-night I intend 
taking you to the south-eastern portion of our island, to a county, 
which, even as late as the commencement of the 20th century, has 
been styled " An undiscovered country." 

Some of you may wonder at my applying such a term to an English 
county in the present day, but I wonder how many there are 
amongst us northerners who could say they knew anything about 
Essex, beyond the fact that the River Stour dividing it from the rich 
lands of Suffolk, was, with its meadows and watermills made famous- 
by Constable, and the Stort and Lea, separating it on the west from 
Hertfordshire, are the haunts of the compleat angler. 

The general impression of Essex is, that it is a flat, desolate marsh,, 
with no interests to tempt the holiday maker, instead of which it can 
in its own way compare favourably with its better known rivals ; its 
charms are Nature's own, pure and simple, unsurpassed in their home- 
like sweetness, but how long will they remain untouched by the hand 
of man 1 The speculative land grabber, and the jerry builder, the curses 
of our land, who, under the guise of progress and the demands of civi- 
lisation, seek to fill their own pockets at the expense of our country's 
beauty, are even now knocking at her door, and time alone will show 
how far their vandalism and greed will be allowed to spoil those 
natural beauties ; but there are a few who foresee the danger, who, 
blessed both with position and influence, are doing their beet to save 
some of our country's natural beauties from the hands of the spoiler, 
so that in the years to come Britain may still be numbered amongst 
the beauty spots of the world. 

A glance at the map of Essex shows us a country broken and 
indented by numerous creeks and estuaries, tidal waters, and marshes 
Vol, XXII.— Nos. 7-12— July to Dec, 1906. 



98 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

of the Colne, Black water and Cronch. This marsh country, as it is 
sometimes called, often considered as fiat, stale, and uninteresting, is, on 
the oontrarj', full of interest and enduring charm, and I wish to put 
in a plea this evening for a more thorough exploration of these high- 
ways, bjrways, and waterways of our own country, " the land we love — 
or should love — the most." Then, perhaps, we shall realise ih&ce is 
an endless field in the study of our own antiquities and folklore, and, 
that they are worthy to rank equally with the customs and supersti- 
tions of foreign nations. 

Leaving Liverpool Street Station, we pass as rapidly as the 
network of lines will allow through Forest Gate, at one time part of 
Epping Forest, which extended over the greater part of the county, 
on to Brentwood, a town whose history dates back to the days of 
Edward the Confessor, situated in the centre of the Weald country, 
and on the old Roman, now modern, road to East Anglia. Here, at 
the sign of the White Hart, which claims to have existed since 1480, 
you may hear in the evenings tales of those good old coaching 
days before the iron horse arrived, and a very enjoyable time may be 
spent in exploring the beautiful scenery surrounding the quaint old 
town. 

Pass Ingatestone, the centre of the 100 square miles of Essex 
devastated by an awful hailstorm on that black day in the mid- 
summer of 1897, whose hall is the original of Audley Court in Miss 
Braddon's famous novel " Lady Audley*s Secret," Chelmsford, a busy 
market town, whose history dates back to the old days of the Saxon 
period, and the little junction of Whitham is reached, where we 
change carriages, and shortly arrive at the small but populous and 
picturesquely situated town of Maldon. (See Fig. 1.) 

Maldon is divided into two parts by the River Blackwater. East 
Maldon, situated to the north of the liver, is lower than West Maldon, 
which stands on the south bank on a steep eminence. If approached 
by water it presents a striking aspect with its quays and shipping 
standing out against a background of old-fashioned red-tiled houses, 
interspersed here and there by tower or spire. Delightful views may 
be had of the surrounding country, across the estuary and towairds the 
sea. The town itself is also full of interest with its quaint corners 
and narrow alleys, which remind you of Whitby. One of its attractive 
features is the Moot Hall, dating back to the Tudor period, with an 
over-hanging clock, and a portico over the footway, supported by four 
.stone pillars ; its grey and worn exterior gives no clue to its age, and 
it is only when you enter and view the fine old pannelled council 
chamber, the Newel staircase, with a hand-rail of mdulded brick, that 
you realise you have here an example of the early fifteenth century. 
From the leaden roof extensive views may be enjoyed of the surround- 
ing scenery. 

All Saints', Uie Parish Church of Maldon, has many fine examples 
of Early English, decorated, and perpendicular work, but its chief 
feature is the singular triangular tower. St. Mary's, founded during 
the Norman era, is principally of the fifteenth century. In an old 
building, until lately used as a schoolhouse, close to the old tower of 
St. Peter's Church, is houised the famous library of some' 7,000 
volumes, collected and presented to the town by Dr. lliomas Plume, 




Fio. l.-MALDON FROM THE RIVER. 



[M.W.T. 




Fio. 2.— an ESSEX SALTING. 



[M.W.T 



An Undiscovered Country, and the English Holland. 99 

Archdeacon of Kocheeter, born at Maldon in 1630; he was also the 
founder of the Plumian Professorship of Astronomy at Cambridge 
University. He died in 1704, and lies in Longfield Church, Kent. 

Beyond its weekly market the trade of Maldon is small, and ita 
ahip]ping is confined chiefly to hay and straw for the London market ; 
but Maldon has its romance, for it was stated by the old historians 
to be Camulodummi, the chief seat of Cymbeline, but later authorities 
have shown this to be false, as the honour of being the town referred 
to by the Roman authorities belongs to Colchester. But the Romans 
did visit Maldon; of this there is undoubted proof, for coins and 
pottery show traces of their occupation of the town. 

But it is to the days of Alfred we must look for the first records 
of its history, and there we find that one of the most famous battles 
between the Saxon and Dane took place, when, in 991, the Danes beset 
the town in great force, but, although hard pressed, it managed to hold 
out until help came, and the besiegers were driven off. But in a short 
time they returned again in greater force; then took place that 
fi^t which caused the men of Maldon, though worsted in the struggle, 
to be handed down to future agee as heroes in that priceless relic of 
Anglo-Saxon literature, "The Song of the Fight at Maldon." Free- 
man, the historian, compares it to the old battle songs of Greece, and 
complains of its not being placed on a par with them because it is 
written in the English tongue. He says: "The song is plainly local 
and contemporary; it comes straight from the soul of the East Saxon 
gleeman of the tenth century. It is something to stand on the spot 
and to call up the picture of the valiant Ealdorman, lighting from his 
horse among his faithful hearth-band, marshalling his men in the thick 
array of the shield^wall, refusing to pay tribute to the Vikings, and 
telling them that point and edge shall judge between th^n." 

We are told in the poem how the Panta, or Blackwater, separated 
the combatants, how they had to wait for low tide before they could 
come to close quarts 



*' Between them flowed the tide; 
For after ebb the flood rolled up, it flUed the channel wide. 
And till their spears together clashed, too long the time did seen! 
To Yiklng and East Saxon ranks arrayed by Panta's stream; 
For neither could the other hurt save by the arrows' flight 
TUl ebb of tide." 

We are then told how the story of Herat ius and his two com- 
panions, defending the bridge over the Tiber, is repeated by Wulfstan, 
Alfhere, and Maccuo, who so long as they had strength to wield their 
weapons defended the passage of the bridge across the Panta, While 
most, if not all, of us know the old Roman tale, how many have 
heard of its English counterpart? 

The song then describes how the Vikings crossed at a ford higher 
up, narrates the incidents of the fi^ht, the single combats, and at 
length relates the death of the noble Earldorman Brihtnoth, and 
how, when he had received his death wound, 
•' He to heaven looked/' 



100 The Jouriud of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

and said — 

" * Thank Thee, Nations' Wielder, 
For all the good things 
That I in th' world have had; 
Now I own, mild Maker, 
That I most have need. 
That Thou to my ghost 
Good should grant. 
That my eoul to Thee 
Now may make its way. 
To Thy Einedom, 
Lord of Angels, 
With peace to journey.' " 

We are told of a cowardly follower who, on his lord's death, seized 
his horse and fled; but there were others there of sterner stuff who 
stayed to avenge their master, lliese fell one by one, and as they 
met their fate 

" Mind shall the harder be. 
Heart shall the keener be. 
Mood shall the more be. 
As our might lessens." 

Sad to relate, the Danes misused his body, carried away the head 
to Denmark, where the skull would probably figure as a drinking cup, 
and the remains were interred in the Abbey of Ely. 

Leaving West Maldon, crossing the river, passing through East 
Maldon, and following a path through an avenue of trees which 
reminds you of the old Dutch landscapes of Hobbema, we reach the 
populous suburb of Heybridge. Here is a sea-water basin where 
vessels discharge their cargoes into lighters, and these are taken up 
the Chelmer Canal to the county town of Chehnersford. Messrs. 
Edward Hammond, Bentall, and Co. have large engineering and 
agricultural works, and there is an extensive importation of high- 
class timber carried on by Messrs. John Sadd and Sons Ltd. 

There are any number of interesting rambles round Maldon, but 
one that the visitor must be sure to take is to Beeleigh Abbey, the 
relic of a religious house at once so picturesque, and of so much 
antiquarian interest, that few places in the county can equal it. 

Leaving the town by the western outskirts, we pass Spital Farm, 
which takes its name from the ancient Leper Hospital of St. GOes, 
whose site it now occupies. The only genuine relio is a large building 
built in a cruciform shape, now used as a barn. Built into the walls 
of stone are Roman bricks and windows, whose architecture indicates 
their thirteenth century origin, but very little is known as to its 
foundation. 

A short walk through the' fields, along the side of the Chelmer, 
which, just below the Abbey, forms a foaming waterfall, crossed by a 
flat wooden bridge, brincys us to Beeleigh. The Abbey of to-day is 
little altered so far as outward appearances go to what it was at the 
time of the Dissolution, for, unlike the majority, it was allowed to 
stand instead of being pulled down and a modern building built in its 
place. The result is a delightful jumble of different styles of architec- 
ture, early English windows and doors, Elizabethan brickwork, tim- 
bered gables, and chimneys in clusters, inside groined roofs and Tudor 
fireplaces. 



An Undiscovered Country, and the Eayliah Holland, 101 

Close to the Abbey was the old mill and the fishponds of the 
monks. A little to one side, near the floodgates, is a pretty thicket, 
crossed by trickling streamlets, where is situated the Lion Elm, so 
called from the curious formation of one side of the trunk, which 
resembles a lion's head. Beeleigh is the angler s paradise, for all 
manner of fishing can be had in the waters of the Chelmer and Black- 
water, and in the Chelmer Navigation Canal, which joins the two 
rivers above Beeleigh. The river and the river banks abound with 
flowers too numerous for an inexpert botanist like myself to christen. 

Among the interesting places round Maldon are Great Totham, 
with its ancient barrows where Dane and Saxon lie side by side, and 
Tipton Heath, the scene of Boadicea's fight with the legion of 
Suetonius. (See Fig. 2.) 

At the mouth of the Blackwater, where it opens out into the estuary, 
lies l^e little island of Osea, which is being developed by Mr. Char- 
rington as a temperance health resort. Further north, at the mouth 
of the estuary, lies the island of Mersea; on its eastern side, facing 
Brightlingsea, is the little village of East Mersea, where the Rev. S. 
Baring Gould was once rector- His powerful tale " Mehalah " has done 
for Essex what Blackmore's '* Lorna Doone " did for North Devon, for 
it is full of the wild spirit of Mersea life and scenery. Mehalah, 
though the creation of an author's brain, is held by many of the island 
inhabitants to be a true history, and they will point out people whose 
ancestors figure in the story. Here are a couple of anecdotes related 
by Mr. Baring Gould in his interesting book, '' On Old English Homes.'' 
He once asked an old Essex yeoman, " What ! nine or ten miles from a 
doctor? Tlie answer came, "Well, sir, yes it is ten. Thank heaven 
we all in this parish mostly die natural deaths." The other tells of an 
Essex farmer's wife who at times was troubled with her lungs, when 
she used to swallow some shot from her husband's flask. " You see, 
sir," she explained, " my lungs ain't properly attached, and in windy 
weather they blows about. You know how you've got the curtain at 
the church door weighted with shot? That's to keep it down. Well, 
I takes them shot on the same principle — to keep my lungs down." 

Round here, at the mouth of the Colne, lie the famous oyster beds, 
and many fishermen are dependent on this industry; but oyster 
dredgering is hard work. 

Time will not permit of my describing more of the wonders of 
this part of Essex, but enterinj^ the train we join the main line at 
Colchester. This old town, whose history goes back 2,000 years, 
when, as the Roman town of Camerlodunum, it became their chief 
settlement in Britain, is now noted as the busiest agricultural centre 
of Essex, and one of the principal garrison stations of England. The 
origin of its name is unknown, but is supposed to mean the "town 
of Camulos," a Gaulish deity probably worshipped both by Britons 
and Romans; it was also the capital of Cunobelin, celebrated by 
Shakespeare in his play of " Cymbeline." 

On the invasion of Britain the Emperor Claudius was opposed by 
Cymbeline's two sons, but defeated them. 

The chief feature of the town is the almost perfect condition of its 
ancient walls, for while the old buildings and narrow streets have givexi 
way before the requirements of commercial progress, only a few old 



102 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

houses here and there, with a few carefully-preserved inns, remain 
to remind us of its ancient origin. 

Most of us in our nursery days used to sing the rhyme about " Old 
King Cole was a merry old soul," but few of us, even when grown up, 
know that it is based on a legendary British king, who is said to have 
built the first wall round Colchester. In a village just outside the 
town is shown his kitchen, which waa probably the site of a Roman 
theatre. We are told that he had a very beautiful daughter, Helena, 
who married the Roman general, Constantius, as King Cole had no 
son to succeed him. They had one son, who became Constantine the 
Great. Here, also, Boadicea, one of the most heroic and pathetic of 
England's historical characters, fought her famous fight. 

During the Middle Ages very littlo is heard of the town, until the 
famous fiiege by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
which lasted seventy-six days; but this victory was disgraced by the 
execution of Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle the day after the 
capitulation. 

One of the most interesting of the old Roman relics is the Balkan 
gate, situated on the top of the Balkan Hill, and with one exception 
is said to be the only Roman gateway left in England. Referring to 
this relio of bygone days, Carlyle says : " How beautiful to see thereby, 
as through a long vista into the remote time; to have as it were an 
actual section of almost the earliest past brought safe into the present, 
and set before our eyes." Other interesting obgects are the Castle and 
St. Botolph*s Priory, both of Norman origin. Besides its agricultural 
interests there are several large engineering firms associated with the 
town. The country around provides many interesting excursions. 

Passing onwards we come to Ipswich, an ancient market town, and 
capital of the county of Suffolk. Situated on the north bank of the 
River Orwell, about twelve miles from the sea, Ipswich is a town of 
considerable size, and a rising port ; its water area at the present time 
extends over 32 acres, vessels of 2,000 tons being able to enter its 
harbour. The Town Hall, with its imposing frontage and statues 
representing Commerce, Justice, Learning, and Agriculture; the 
General Post Office, the Museum, the Schools of Art and Science, the 
Victoria Free Library, and the Art Gallery, are all modem buildings. 
Ipswich dates its history to the times of Ethelred, and is mentioned in 
the Domesday Book as "Gyppesari." It is stated to have contained 
nine churches ; it was incorporated in the reip:n of King John, and in 
1447 sent two members to the National Parliament. One of the most 
interesting of its old associations is its connection with Cardinal 
Wolsey, who was born here in 1471, and tlie house in which this took 
place is still pointed out. Another interesting relic, if not the chief, 
of the old Tudor buildings, is the " Ancient House," better known 
as Sparrowe's House, the name of a family who once owned it ; it is an 
unique specimen of the domestic architecture of 1567, and if placed in 
one of the old German towns would be held up as an object of admira- 
tion, but being in an English town it is little known, for it is not labelled 
with that magic passport to notoriety of '* Made in Germany." Under 
each of the five bay windows of the first floor is a panel with a plaster- 
modelled figure in alto-relief, representing (1) Atlas bearing the 
globe; (2) America, an Indian figure with bow and arrow; (3) Africa, 







Fkj. 3.— ST. EDMUND'S, SOUTHWOLD. 



[M.H\T. 




Fio. 4.-C0VEHITHE CHURCH. 



[M.W,T. 



An Undiscovered Country , and the English Holland, 103 

a tigure seated on a crocodile ; (4) Asia, a figure with a camePs head by 
her side; and (5) Europe, a figure holding a sceptre and cornucopia. 
It is said to have been a hiding-place of Charles II. during the Civil 
War. Another famous building is the old hostel known as the White 
Horse, the scene of the romantic adventures of Mr. Pickwick with a 
middle-aged lady in yellow curl papers ; but while the inside remains 
almost as it was in those good old coaching days, the exterior has been 
modernised with a front of white brick. Most of the churches are 
modem, but contain many interesting objects taken from their original 
namesakes. There are other quaint timber-built dwellings of interest, 
and pleasant excursions can be made in the surrounding country. 
Up the river, which above Ipswich is know^n as the Gipping, some 
lovely pastoral scenery is met with. 

Ipswich is also an important centre of manufacturing and com- 
mercial activity, containing many important firms whose productions 
are known all over the world. But we hasten on, and, re-entering- 
the train, are whirled northwards. Pass Woodbridge, an old-fs[shioned 
market town ; Saxmundham, the junction for the Aldeburgh branch 
line, and Halesworth is reached. Here we change into the narrow- 
fruage Southwold Railway, and soon reach, according to the Guide 
Book, "the ancient seaport and marine health resort of Southwold. 
This little seaside resort ha« been styled Holland at ho^me,-not that 
there is anything Dutch about the place or people, biit it has many 
claims to be considered one of the most interesting places on the East 
Coast, for it is the centre of a district full of historical associations 
and picturesque relics of former times. Besides having a healthy and 
invigorating climate, it claims to be considered an artist's land in 
contrast to the Poppyland of Cromer. 

Situated close to the mouth of the River Blyth, Southwold dates 
its hist6ry back to the year 1490, when, as a result of a dispute with 
the neighbouring town of Dunwich, it obtained a charter from Henry 
VII., but before the charter, viz., in 1202, a chapel was built here by 
the Monks of Thelford. This building was destroyed about 1430, and 
shortly afterwards the preeent church was commenced. About 1758 
some men, in digging, came across the old foundations, and, on 
measurement, these showed the old structure to have been 
72 feet long. The present edifice is 144 feet long and 
56 feet broad; the exterior is beautifully faced with flints. 
(See Fig. 3.) The tower rises to a height of 100 feet, 
but the battlements round the top never appear to have been com- 
pleted. Over the west window is inscribed the following in Old 
English characters : " St. Edmund, Ora pro Nobis." Above the porch 
is a chamber, formerly used as an arsenal. Just outside the chancel 
entrance are three headstones, which mark the graves of Thomas 
Gardner, the historian of Dunwich, and his two wives. They bear 
the following curious inscriptions : — 

The one on the south side bears this inscription : 

" To the memory of Rachel, the wife of Thomas Gardner, who died 9th 
March, 1729, aged 35 years; and Rachel, their daughter, who died I8th 
April, 1729, aged 12 years. 

" ' Virtue crowned, durinef life, 

Both the daughter and the wife.' " 



104 Tlie Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 

The stone on the north side bears : 

" Mary, wife of Thomas Gardner, died 3rd May, 1759, aged 67 years. 
*' * Honour ever did attend 

Her just dealings to the end.' " 

The centre stone has inscribed upon it : 

" In memory of Thomas Gardner, salt officer^ who died March 30Ui, 
1769, aged 79 years. 

" ' Betwixt Honour and Yirtae here doth lie 
The remains of old antiquity.'" 

Here may also be seen the tombs of " Agnes Strickland," historian 
of the Queens of England, and her sister, " Jane Strickland.'' The 
interior, built in the perpendicular style, is very beautiful, but nothing 
to what it must have been before the time of the Civil War, when so 
many beautiful churches suffered destruction at the hands of the 
Parliamentarians. In the rood upper doorway in the north aisle is a 
quaint wooden figure in armour, known by the name of ** Jack Smite 
the clock." It is an ancient relic, and used before every service to 
give notice to the congregation that the clergy are about to enter. 
At the entrance to the churchyard stand the old stocks. There is 
also a good Golf Club with an 18-hole course. The chief portions of 
the town occupy slightly-elevated ground overlooking Sole Bay, a 
grand sweep of water, the scene of two well-contested sea fights 
between the English and Dutch fleets in 1665 and 1672. 

To tlie north of the town, on the way to Lowestoft, is the small 
fishing village of Covehithe, famous as the birthplace of that sturdiest 
of reformers, and most mordant of controversialists, Bishop Hale 
(1495). Here also is a fine old church, whose ivy-clad ruins bear 
silent witness to the former wealth and populousness of a place which 
now ranks amongst the poorest and meanest parishes in the county. 
{See Fig. 4.) All the ancient part« of this once-stately pile are 
crumbling into decay, but Divine Service is still carried on in a small 
building, built within the nave of the older church about 1672. The 
great arch of the east window still attests its former beauty, and the 
tower acts as a good landmark for travellers. 

" All roofless now the stately pile. 
And rent the arches tall. 
Thro' which, with bright departing smile. 
The western sunbeams fall. 

Tradition's voice forgets to tell 

Whose ashes sleep below. 
And fancy here unchecked may dwell 

And bid the story flow. 

—A. Strickland. 

Five miles to the west of Southwold lies the little village of Blyth- 
burgh, situated on the River Blyth, noted for the ruins of the old 
Priory of the Augustines, and its beautiful church of the Holy Trinity. 
A market town in the reign of Edward the Confessor, it had to render 
10,000 herrings yearly for the King's use. The church contains what 




Fig. 5.— WALBERSWICK. 



[M.W.T. 




U-' 



An UTidiscovered Gounti^y, and the English Holland. 105 

is said to be the tomb of Aiina,. King of the East Angles, who, with 
his son Fermiuus, was slaiu in a battle with the Mercians on 
Bulcamp Heath in 654:. The roof is elaborately carved and decorated, 
and bears thirty coats-of-arms. " Few ecclesiastical structures in this 
kingdom possess a juster claim to unqualified admiration .... 
whether we contemplate the unity of the design, the extent of its 
dimensions, or the exact symmetry of its component parts, judgment 
and taste will alike be satisfied." It is almost entirely perpendicular, 
and consists of tower, chancel, clerestoried nave, and aisles. Like 
many other diurches, it suffered considerable damage during the 
Civil War, and its condition at the present time is even now pitiful, 
for it sadly wants repairing; but the parish is a poor one, and 
without outside help it would be impossible to do this. 

The decay of Blythburgh is said to be due to three causes — water, 
confiscation, and fire. Water, for the sea has so stilted up the old 
harbour of Dunwich that vessels are unable to come up to Walberswick ; 
confiscation, when the Augustianian Order was suppressed; and by 
fire in 1676, when so great was the devastation that the town never 
recovered. 

Nearer the sea, on the road between Southwold and Dunwich, lies 
the little village of Walberswick. If Cromer is entitled to be called 
Poppyland, then Walberswick may fairly claim to be considered 
Artist's land, for this little village, with its quaint old houses, bridges, 
and ferry, its fine old ruined church is considered the most 
picturesque village on the Suffolk coast. It is the resort of countless 
numbers of artists, who love to depict its beauties with brush and 
pencil. (See Fig. 5.) Its resemblance to Holland is so great that 
it has been called " the English Holland.'' " Spacious green distances 
under bright, silvery Van der Velde-like skies, cattle feeding that 
Paul Potter might liave sketched, dykes and waterways and high 
wooden little bridges, red roofs shining in the sun, backed by trees 
and topped by grey church towers, and over all there is sunshine and 
the flavour of the sea." The likeness is so great that the country 
might have been laid out and composed by Dutch painters. 

The church was built by the inhabitants in the palmy days between 
1473 and 1493. It consisted of a chancel, nave, aisles, porches, and 
a fine lofty tower. Like its companion church of Blythburgh, it 
suffered in the fire that devastated the town in 1633, and Dowsing, 
with his wreckers, furthered its decay. Three subsequent conflagra- 
tions and the depression in the fishing industry reduced Walberswick 
to poverty, and in 1695 the inhabitants asked to be allowed to take 
down the roof and north aisle, sell some of the bells, and with the 
proceeds render a portion of the south aisle fit for service. Their 
petition was granted, and the present small church was built, the old 
tower was restored, and is standing at the present day. 

Leaving Walberswick, and following the coast line, we might easily 
fancy ourselves in Holland, with its dykes to protect the lands against 
the inroads of the sea, its quaint windmills, and the watery pastures 
all reminding us of that country. A short walk brings us to all that 
remains of the once powerful city of Dunwich — a few scattered cottages 
along a sea-washed cliff, and the crumbling ruins of a church. The 
discovery of* Roman remains and coins goes to prove that they had a 



106 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

settlement here, and a road connecting Dunwich with Bury St. 
Edmunds is known to have existed, being mentioned in ancient docu- 
ments under the title of the " King's highway." It was also a port of 
some importance during the Saxon era, and Felix, the Burgundian 
monk, choee it for the establishment of the See of East Anglia in 632. 
As early as the days of Edward the Confessor the town's battle with 
the waves began. In 1628 it was stated, in a petition forwarded to the 
then Duke of Buckingham, that the town formerly consisted of fifty-two 
parishes, all of which save one had been submerged. 

Time will not permit of my giving you a full account of the town's 
interesting history, its unsuccessful siege by the Earl of Leinster in 
1173, its support of King John in the Barons' Wars, and its final ruin 
completed by the Suppression of the Monasteries. As a borough it 
returned two members to Parliament until 1832, when it was dis- 
franchised, and its municipality was taken away as lately as 1886. 

In the winter of 1328 Dunwich received its first great blow from 
its watery enemy, when its harbour and 400 houses were destroyed by 
the waves. In the 16th century, we are told in a curious document 
dedicated to Master Deye, and supposed to have been written by 
Stowe, that the parishes and churches of St. Leonard, St. John, St. 
Martin, and St. Nicholas had met with the same fate, and shortly 
afterwards two of the town's gates were broken down. 

Other ecclesiastical buildings are said to have suffered a like fate, 
and in 1702 St. Peter's had to be pulled down, its fall being imminent 
In the great storm of 1740 ** the sea raged with such fury that Cock 
and Hen Hills, which the preceding summer were upwards of 40 ft. high, 
had their heads levelled w^ith their bases, and the ground about them 
so rent and torn that the foundation of St. Francis' Chapel, which lay 
between the said hills, was discovered." 

The present ruins of All Saints' will probably shortly suffer the 
same fate. Very aptly do the following lines, written by a Suffolk 
poet, describe this once famous city : — 

" Where the lone cliflf uprears its rugged head. 
Where frowns the ruin o'er the silent dead. 
Where sweeps the billow on the lonely shore. 
Where once the mighty lived, bnt live no more. 
Where proudly frowned the convent's massy wall. 
Where rose the Gothic tower, the stately hall. 
Where bards proclaimed, and warriors shared the feast. 
Where ruled the baron and where knelt the priest. 
There stood the citv in its pride — 'tis eone — 
Mocked at by crumbling pile, and mouldering stone.** 

Here I must bring my rambles to a close, but before doing so there 
are a few remarks I feel I must make. In the first place, if there should 
be any East Anglians in my audience this evening I trust they will 
pardon me for not having done justice to their country. When I 
mentioned to an East Anglian the places I intended to speak about 
lie said I had not chosen the best, and I quite agree with him ; but I 
have given you my own wanderings, and I hold that if these places, 
even though they are not the most picturesque, can claim attractions 
such as I have endeavoure<l to place before you this evening, then the 
reproach that has so long been levelled at Essex that it is dull, flat. 



An Undiscovered Country ^ and the English Holland, 107 

and uninteresting, must be consigned to the past, and justice done 
to the rustic beauties due to natural sources alone of both Essex and 
its sister county of Suffolk. For in spite of the rush of the majority 
of tourists and holiday seekers to the advertised and fashionable 
resorts, both at home and abroad, it is when we find ourselves planted 
amid these homely scenes whose charms are Nature's own, where even 
the villages and mansions show in their domestic architecture a quaint 
simplicity unspoiled by the changing tastes of the rushing crowd, 
there iis something to be said for the simple life led by their inhabitants, 
and its contrast to the rush and struggle of the town. These influences 
cause us to reflect, and as our gaze travels over the fertile pastures or 
sea-girt marshes, reflecting back the glories of the heavens in masses 
of light and shade, we feel there must be more than we are wont to 
realise in that unseen universe which surrounds us, and those words of 
the Psalmist rise to our lips : — 

"O Lord, how wondrous are Thy works: in wisdom hast Thou made 
them all: the earth ie full of Thy riches." 



Notes. — ^A marsh is a reclaimed salting, enclosed within a sea-wall. 
A salting is land occasionally flooded, otherwise serving as pasturage. 
(See Fig. 2.) 

Recently extensive works have been begun to render the River 
Blyth navigable past Walberswick, and the old picturesque aspect 
of the mouth of the Blyth has gone for ever. 



NEW ATLAS. 



Atlas of thb World's Commerce. A new series of Maps, with 
Descriptive Text and Diagrams showing Products, Imports, 
Exports, Commercial Conditions, and Economic Statiartics of the 
Countries of the World. Compile<l from the latest Official 
Returns at the Edinburgh Greographical Institute, and edited by 
J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., etc, London: G. 
Newnes Ltd. 1906. 

Wb have much pleasure in drawing the attention of the members to this 
new atlas, of which the first sixteen parts have been received. When com- 
plete, it will form a very useful work of reference for information relating 
to the trade of the world. The " Dictionary of Commodities of Commerce/' 
issued with the earlier parts, and the " Introduction to Economio 
C^eography," by Mr. G. C. Chisholm, issued with later ones, should be of 
great value, especially to teachers. 



108 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 



IN AND AROUND HONG KONG. 

By Dr. Bobb&t Gibson. 

{Addressed to the Society in the G«ographioa'l Hall, on Tuesday, March 

20th, 1906.] 

THE island of Hong Kong ia situated off the coast of the Kwang- 
1 tung province of Southern China, near the mouth of the 
Chu-kiang or Canton River. It lies between 22 deg. 9 min. and 
22deg. 17 min. N. Lat. and IHdeg. 5 min. and IHdeg. ISmin. E. 
Long. Forty miles distant from it, in a western direction, is the 
Portuguese settlement of Macao, the oldest European colony in the 
Far East ; Canton, the capital of Southern China, is 90 miles distant ; 
and Shanghai, the trade rival of Honk Kong, is situated about 60 
hours' journey to the north. 

History. 

Tii& British ensign was hoisted on Possession Point by Captain 
Elliot in the year 1840, before which time little or nothing is known 
about the island. The incidents leading up to its acquisition by 
Britain form an interesting and instructive story of Chinese diplomacy 
and duplicity, into which, however, it is not my duty to enter. 

By the Conventions of 1840 and 1898 further territory was ceded 
by China, consisting of upwards of 200 square miles on the opposite 
mainland, known slb the New Territory, together with a few islands 
in the neighbourhood, chief of which is Lantao. 

During its early occupation the island was found to be exceedingly 
unhealthy. Indeed, in 1844 the advisability of abandoning the colony 
was seriously discussed, the reason being the high death-rate among 
the troops. Hong Kong was at this time, and for many years follow- 
ing, known as the " Black Hole of the Far East," and it certainly did 
deserve its bad name ; but, fortunately, chiefly through recent advances 
in tropical medicine, and especially to those initiated by Sir Patrick 
Manson, who was for many years resident in the colony, the island is 
now fairly salubrious. 

Dbscription. 

The island is about 11 miles long and 2 to 5 miles wide, and haa 
a sea border of about 27 miles. It consists of a broken ridge of hills, 
with few valleys of any extent, chief of w^hich is Wong-nai-chung, or 
Happy Valley. 

The capital of the island is Victoria, which is beautifully but 
unfortunately situated on the northern aide of the island. From the 
harbour the city presents a very striking appearance, as the houses, 
many of which are large and handsome, rise tier upon tier from the 
water's edge to a height of 450 feet on the face of the peak, and many 



In and Around Hong Kong, 109 

houses may be seen on the top of the ridge of hilLs. Seen from the 
harbour at night, when thousands of lamps twinkle among trees and 
houses, the city, spreading along the shore for upwards of four miles, 
affords ^ beautiful sight, and gives one the idea of some *' fairy-town.'^ 

The streets of the city are very narrow, but the roads are well 
kept. On the lower levels the roads are macadamised, but on the sides 
of the hills they are covered with concrete, this being necessary as 
a protection against the very heavy rains, especially typhoon rains. 
The traffic on the roads is all carried on by coolies, horses being quite 
unknown, the jinricksha and chair supplying the place of the cab. 
Electric cars have been introduced into the colony within the last 
two years, and there is a tramway on the wire-rope system running 
from near St. John's Cathedral below to Victoria Gap at the Peak. 

The European business part of the town extends from Pottinger 
Street on the west to Murray Street on the east, and, except for thi» 
part, almost all the lower levels are covered with a dense mass of 
Chinese houses. 

The Botanic Gardens are beautifully situated above Government 
House, and are well laid out in terraces, slopes, etc. There is a fine 
bronze statue of Sir Arthur Kennedy, a former Governor of the 
colony, in the Gardens. 

The chief public building is the City Hall, which contains a small 
theatre and numerous large rooms which are used for public meetings. 
In one of the rooms, viz., St. George's Hall, there is a beautiful 
portrait of the late Queen Victoria, presented by Sir Thomas Jackson. 
There is also an excellent library in connection with the City Hall. 

Government House occupies a commanding situation, in pictu- 
resque grounds well laid out, in the centre of the city. 

There are quite a number of hospitals in the colony, but the chief 
are the Government Civil Hospital for Europeans and the Tung-wa 
for Chinese. 

The barracks for the garrison are extensive, and constructed with 
great regard to the health and comfort of the troops. 

Other buildings of note in the colony are the Central Market, the 
Head office of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Co., and the 
Queen'fr Buildings — ^a set of offices on the Praya Central. Near the 
Queen's Buildings is a bronze statue of Queen Victoria, which was 
erected to commemorate the Jubilee year. The chief religious build- 
ings are St. John's Cathedral and Union Church. 

Institutions. 

There are several clubs in the colony, the chief being the " Hong 
Kong Club " and the " Club Germania," The Hong Kong Club is a 
beautiful building, well situated on the Praya Central. It is said to 
be the largest club east of Suez, and it has sleeping accommodation 
for about 70 members, and also a magnificent library. The Club 
Germania is a new building on the Kennedy Road. There are many 
other smaller clubs, and all kinds of sport are represented in the 
colony. 

There are four daily papers published in English, and two weekly, 
and the native press is represented by six daily papers. 



110 The Joiumal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

Industries. 

Manufactures are yearly increasing in importance. There are 
three large sugar refineries in the colony, and there are also factories 
for ice, rope, soap, glass, and niatchets. There are also large steam 
saw mills, and there is a cement company, which has part of its works 
at Deep Water Bay and part at Hung-hum. The Hong Kong Cotton 
Spinning, Weaving, and Dyeing Company has a mill with 55,000 
spindles. The city is partly illuminated by gas and partly by electric 
light, the latter having been introduced in 1890. But the industry in 
which the colony may be said to excel is engineering and shipbuilding ; 
nor is this to be wondered at when one remembers that the very 
existence of the colony depends on its harbour and shipping. Tliere 
are several large shipbuilding and engineering works, but the largest 
and most prosi)erous is the Hong Kong and Whampoa Dock Company. 
This company has three establishments, viz., at Hung-hum, at Tai 
Kok Tsui, and at Aberdeen. The largest establishment is at Hung- 
hum, and their largest dock is 576 feet long and 86 feet broad. Here 
the largest ships sailing into port can be dry-docked, and here also 
ships of His Majesty's China Fleet can be re-fitted, thus obviating the 
enormous expense and inconvenience of bringing such ships to this 
country; and it speaks well for the work done by the company 
when one learns that the Admiralty are well satisfied with it. 
The company has also an established reputation for the construction 
of river steamers and small launches. The Admiralty are now build- 
ing a dock for their own ships on the Victoria side of the harbour, 
which will probably be completed within the next two years. Messrs. 
Butterfield and Swire are also building an enormous dock (over 700 
feet long) at Quarry Bay, which, when completed, will be one of the 
largest docks in the world. 

Tradb. 

Hong Kong is a free port, and there is no complete official return 
of the imports and exports compiled, but the value of its trade is 
estimated at about £50,000,000 per annum. In 1902 a total of 
20,218 veesels of 8,734,308 tons entered and 20,094 vessels of 
8,595,817 tons cleared with cargoes. There also entered in ballast 
5,819 vessels of 1,133,178 tons and cleared 6,215 vessels of 1,246 148 
tons. The trade chiefly consists in opium, cotton, sugar, salt, flour, 
oil, cotton and woollen goods, cotton yarn, matches, metals, earthen- 
ware, amber, ivory, sandalwood, betel, vegetables, granite, etc. Here 
it is that the large liners of European countries discharge their 
cargoes into enormous wareliouses, whence it is distributed by small 
steamers and junks to the coast jxjrts ; these, in turn, returning laden 
with the produce of the country, which is transhipped to the large 
liners for distribution on the markets of Europe and America. There 
is an enormous Chinese passenger traffic, now restricted to the Straits 
Settlements, Netherlands India, Borneo, the Philippines, Siam, and 
Indo-China. 

Hong Kong possesses unrivalled steam communication. The 
P. and 0. S. N. Company and M. M. Company convey the European 
mail weekly, and the H. A. Company and N. D. L. Company maintain 



In and Around Hong Kong. Ill 

a bi-weekly service between Bremen and China. There is also regular 
mail service with San Francisco carried out by American and Japanese 
companies, and the C. P. R. keep up a regular service with Vancouver. 
There is also regular communication with Australia kept up by the 
Eastern and Australian Steamship Company and the China Navigation 
Company. There are many large merchant liners running between 
Great Britain and Hong Kong, of which the Ocean Steamship Com- 
pany, China Mutual Steamship Company, and the Glen, Warrack, 
Mogul, Ben, Union, and Shell Lines are the most conspicuous. 

Thh West River. 

Leaving Hong Kong for Canton, every day except Sunday, there 
are seven or eight large steamers, the best of which belong to the 
Hong Kong, Canton, and Macao Steamlx)at Company. To visit 
Canton probably one had better leave Hong Kong on the night boat, 
sleep on board, and arrive in Canton in the morning; but it is advis- 
able to make one journey, either that going or returning, in the 
daytime, as there are many places of interest to be seen on the 
river. 

Passing through the Kap-sui-moon (Seething Water Gate) Pass 
one sees Tai Mow Shan, which rises to a height of 3,000 feet, in the 
distance. On the left is the island of Lantao, and then Deep Water 
Bay is reached, which is the ulterior limit of British authority. Deep 
Water Bay is really a misnomer, as it is very shallow, and there are 
large oyster beds in the bay. The cultivation of oysters is an ancient 
custom among the Chinese. They do not use them in the fresh 
state, but dry them, and in this dry, black state they form anything 
but an inviting-looking dish to the European palate. At the Boggue 
one enters the river proper, and it was off Chuenpee that the first 
encounter took place between Britain and China in 1839, which 
resulted disastrously for the Chinese Fleet. As one proceeds up the 
channel numerous forts are seen on either side, which look very 
formidable, but are probably quite innocent and useless. The banks 
of the river are low, and rice grows luxuriantly in the irrigation 
fields. Here also there are extensive fruit gardens, and large quanti- 
ties of lychees, whampees, loognans, pumelos, mangoes, guavas, 
oranges, and bananas are grown in them. 

Piracy is a chronic institution on the river, and on board the 
ships one would travel up the river on, there is always an armed 
guard ; and it is a fact, or at least is reported as such, that not a few 
Chinese launches leaving Canton carry a pirate on the pay roll to 
secure immunity against his professional brethren. 

The great silk district lies away to the west, and there are many 
large towns here, which are said to have a population of 100,000 
each. 

The second bar pagoda, or Lily Flower Pagoda, is seen in the 
distance, and its function is understood to be the retention of good 
fortune to the surrounding country, which would otherwise be carried 
away by the river. Passing up along what is called the front reach 
of the river one passes the temple of Pawlaw on the right, which 
contains the idol of Hung Shing, the god of the Southern Ocean. 



112 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

His services are frequeutly besought, as he is supposed to regulate the 
rainfall, and when showers are badly needed and the stoppage of 
the slaughter of sheep and pigs has failed to start the rains, the 
Viceroy comes down from Canton to implore the god's assistance. 
He is also a doctor of considerable repute, and the carrying of his 
image through the streets in times of sickness, with the accompani- 
ment of music, viz., banging gongs, is a measure of great potency. 

Before arriving at Whampoa we pass through a barrier formed by 
junks, loaded with stone and sunk side by side across the river, with 
piles driven alongside them to keep them in place. This form of 
defence was a favourite one with the Chinese, and the Viceroy who 
constructed this one remarked that man might and probably would 
run away, but he could reckon on the stones staying where he had 
put them. 

When the steamer arrives opposite Whampoa she stops to dis- 
embark some Chinese passengers. Whampoa used to be the port of 
Canton, but the glory of the port has entirely departed, and all that 
is left is a few mud banks and an attempt at a naval station — this 
being the headquarters of the Chinese Fleet in Southern China. The 
original Whampoa Dock — ^the mother of the great establishment at 
Hong Kong — is here. 

From Whampoa to Canton the river becomes busier and busier, 
with native craft all bound for the great city, and when Canton is 
reached the river is positively black with native boats. It is difficult 
to give, in short space, any idee of the city of Canton, which, though 
exceedingly interesting, is also excessively filthy. The population is 
estimated at something like 3,000,000, and the river population at 
half a million. The streets are exceedingly narrow, and it is 
absolutely essential for one to have a guide to point out the places of 
interest and at the same time to prevent yourself getting lost. 
Ordinarily one visits the temples ; but, to my mind, they are greatly 
over-rated. They are, as a rule, very dirty, and in the immediate 
vicinity beggars hang about in great numbers, and, if one looks 
carefully, lepers may be seen among them. 

Among other places the guide takes one to are the silk and ivory- 
shops, and here one may pick up beautiful samples of needlework at 
a very moderate cost. 

Macao — ^the Portuguese settlement about 40 miles from Hong 
Kong — is the oldest European settlement in the Far East, the Portu- 
guese first having taken up their residence there in 1557. After the 
cession of Hong Kong to the British the trade of Macao declined 
rapidly, and now larcre ships cannot approach nearer than about 
5 to 7 miles, owing to the silting up of the river. Tee continues to be 
an article of export, also fire crackers, tobacco, and preserves. 
Essential oils are exported to some extent, and there is also a fair 
export trade in opium to America. 

Owing to its bein<r exposed to the south-west monsoon, and the 
quietude prevailing, Macao has become a frequent retreat for invalids 
and business men from Hong Kong and other neighbouring ports; 
indeed, it may be looked on more or less as a watering place, and it 
has a superficial resemblance to some of the watering places in this 
country. 



Jamaica, tfie Grown of our West Indian Possessions, 113 

JAMAICA, THE CROWN OF OUR WEST INDIAN ^ 
POSSESSIONS. 

By E. W. Melloe, J.P., F.R.G.S. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, 
on Tuesday, December 4th, 1906.] 

JAMAICA is a name probably associated in your minds with Jamaica 
rum and Jamaica ginger. 

Quit« right ! Both rum and ginger are valuabl-e products of that 
island. 

But I shall hope to show you, this evening, that Jamaica has a 
greater interest for us l^an either rum or ginger; because Jamaica 
is the brightest jewel of our West Indian Possessions ; because Jamaica 
is the most beautiful of all the West Indian Islands; and lastly, but 
perhaps of greatest interest to geographers, because Jamaica was 
discoTered by Christopher Columbus before he discovered the 
continent of America. 

Perhaps you are wondering how it was that Christopher Columbus 
happened to get to Jamaica 1 

Let me remind you, then, that Columbus was one of those early 
geographers who grasped the idea that the world is a sphere, and not 
a flat plain. Now, about the period 1470 to 1474, Columbus con- 
ceived the idea of a western passage to Asia. That is to say, that by 
sailing out into the Atlantic, ever westwards, Columbus believed that 
he would reach the further side, or Qiinese side, of Asia. He was, 
however, to discover an effectual barrier to any such western passage 
to Asia (as he imagined) in the vast American continent, a discovery 
the magnitude of which he did not live to understand. Columbus 
persuaded the King of Spain to equip him with ships and 
crews, and he made fomr voyages of discovery. On the 
25th day of September, 1493, he left the Bay of Cadiz, on his 
second voyage of discovery. Two months later he found himself at 
Cuba. Sailing thence in a southerly direction, he, to quote his his- 
torian, sighted " the blue summit of a vast and lofty island at a great 
distance, which began to arise like clouds from the horizon." This 
was Jamaica. On reaching the shore Columbus took possession, in 
the name of Fepdinand and Isabella of Spain, and named his new 
disoovery " Santiago," though it has always been known by its Indian 
name, "Xaymaca," a name which signifies "a land of springs," and 
which name has been corrupted, and modernised, into Jamaica. 
Columbus remained tilree months in the island, and then sailed back 
to Spain. Nothing more was heard of him, nor of the Spaniards, in 
Janiaica for nine years, during which time he discovered the mainland 
of America. In 1503, during his fourth and last voyage, Columbus 
encountered a continuance of bad weather off the coast of Cuba. He 
lost two ships of his small squadron, and his remaining vessels were 
reduced to mere wrecks. He was forced to run them ashore, in a 



114 The Jov/mal oftlie Mancheder Geographical Society 

sinking condition, in a cove on the north coast of Jamaica, which is 
known to this day as Christopher Columbus Cove. Columbus sent 
his most trusted officer, Diego Mendez, right home to Spain for a 
rescue ship. After waiting a whole year, rescue came, and Columbus 
was carried back to Spain, worn out with hardships and privations 
and by the infirmities of advancing years. 

In 1520 the Spaniards founded a town on the Cobre River. This 
town they named St. lago de la Vega (St. James of the Plain), St. 
James being the patron-saint ol the Spaniards, and here was the seat 
of their government for the next 150 years. The English, when they 
took possession, called this town (which we shall visit) Spanish Town. 
The Spanish rule was one of great cruelty to the native Indians, and 
we find that the establishment of the negro slave trade was practically 
contemporaneous with the Spanish occupation. Now, in 1654, Oliver 
Cromwell, with the two-fold object of gaining wealth and glory, and 
of employing in foreign service officers and men whose loyalty he 
distrusted at home, turned his attention in this direction, and sent 
an expedition, under Admiral Penn and General Venables, with sealed 
orders, "to obtain establishment in that part of the West Indies 
possessed of the Spaniards." They captured Spanish Town on the 
11th of May, 1655, and there raised the British fiiag, and Jamaica has 
been a British possession ever since. Spain naturally could not see so 
valuable a gem torn from her crown without an effort to replace it ; 
therefore, three years later, in 1658, she sent Sasi, her ex-govemor, 
with a thousand men, to recapture Jamaica. Sasi landed on the 
north coast, at Ocho Rios Bay, which we shall see. The British 
Governor, Colonel D'Oyley, attacked the Spaniards near Odio Rios, 
and routed them so utterly that they fled, and poor Sasi escaped to 
Cuba, in a oanoe, from a spot known as Runaway Bay, which spot we 
visit. The British rule was now permanently established. 

Time will not allow me to refer to the remarkable vicissitudes 
through which Jamaica has passed during the 250 years of British 
rule, nor to the daring deeds of the fierce and hardy old buccaneers 
with which the West Indies rang in the early years of that rule. 
Suffice it then to say that the island first began to flourish during 
the governorship of Lord Windsor, in the reign of Charles II. ; and 
to mention the glorious year 1834, the year of Emancipation, when 
it was enacted that all slaves in the Colonial possessions of Great 
Britain should be for ever free, on which thousands of negro slaves 
in Jamaica, and the other West India Islands, became free men. 

Now let us for a moment consider the geographical aspect of 
Jamaica. 

Jamaica is situated some 4,000 miles south-west of England, 
in that remote corner of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Carrib- 
bean Sea, and is one of that numerous group of West Indian 
Islands known as the Greater and Lesser Antilles. Jamaica is one 
of the former, and is, indeed, the third in size of the West Indian 
Islands. Cuba, the largest, contains 54,000 square miles: Hayti, or 
Hispaniola as it was formerly called, the second in size, contains 
30,000 square miles; and then comes Jamaica, with nearly 5,000 
square miles, its extreme length being 144 miles, with a coast line of 
550 miles. 



Jamaica, tlie Cromn of our West Indian Fossesaiona. 115 

Jamaica is a mountainous island, and has been described as the 
'* Gem of the Antilles." The name " Jamaica," as we have seen, 
signifies '' a land of springs," and it is justified, for the island contains 
no less than 80 rivers, and where so much mountain and water exist, 
scenes of beauty also exist. The latitude of Jamaica is between 17 
and 18 degrees north of the equator; the island is, therefore, con- 
siderably within the line of the Tropic of Cancer, and within the zone 
of perpetual simimer. 

We land from our ship at Kingston, the capital and largest town 
in the island; then we go to Milk River, where there is a famed 
mineral spring, and where we shall see something of the sugar 
industry; then up to MandeviUe, on the higher ground, where the 
best oranges grow. Here we charter a sort of van with three horses, 
which enables us to explore the rest of the island. First we drive to 
the coffee plantation at Brokenhurst; then up to Malvern, in the 
Santa Cruz Mountains, the healthiest part of Jamaica ; then down to 
the sea-level again at Black River, where much logwood is shipped ; 
then to Savan' la Mar, the end of our journey westward along the 
south coast; thence we make our way to Lucea, a lovely spot, from 
which we travel along the north coast to Montego Bay, the second 
largest town in the island. At Montego Bay we learn something of 
bananas. Thence, by Brown's Town and Runaway Bay, to Ocho Rios, 
where the Spaniards made their last stand; and on to Port Maria, 
where Columbus first landed ; thence to Port Antonio, the harbour 
of the American shipping trade; thence we turn inland, and finish 
our ramble at Spanish Town, the ancient capital of the Spaniards. 

At the head of the lagoon which forms the harbour of Kingston 
lies the city, with its wharves and docks ; and in the far distance the 
Blue Mountains, famous for coffee. The depth of water is so great 
that our ocean liner goes right up alongside the wharf. The tidal 
movement here, and indeed of the Caribbean Sea generally, is so 
small that it is almost imperceptible. In this it resembles the Baltic 
and the Mediterranean. On the wharf, awaiting our arrival, we find 
a motley crowd of black and white people, Creole or mulatto lodgmg- 
house keepers, and negro custom-house porters, all interested m the 
ship, its passengers, or its cargo. These West Indian negroes, mdeed, 
afford us much amusement. The black boys, dressed in scarcely 
anything at all, look like imps, or monkeys. They call to 
vou to throw a sixpence into the water to dive for. You 
do so. Three or more boys swim away after it, and if 
Tou have thrown it eome distance it may be quite a considerable 
swim Their wet skins shine like polished bronze in the sunshine. 
Thouffh thev ask you for a sixpence, they will dive like this for a 
penny, and 'if you want change, will produce a shillings worth from 
Somewhere, suggesting a conjuring trick, for they don t appear to be 
inconvenienced by sufficient clothing to accommodate a pocket In 
a verv few minutec thev come swimming back again. ijot it is 
evident from the expression of their facee. Throw another com into 
the water. Off after it they go, and they seem quite ready to repeat 
thi.s performance any number of times without leaving the watel. 
When thev do come out their cheeks are swollen as if with huge gum- 
boils; it is simply the pennies they have found, and which they have 



116 Tlie Jouimal oftlie Mancliester Geographical Society, 

thrust into their cheeks, the only place to put them, right down under 
water. They could not thus disport themselyes outside the reef 
enclosing the harbour, for fear of sharks ; but sharks seldom now come 
into the lagoon, driven away, it is supposed, by the constant traffic. 

There is another denizen of the deep, which is welcome, and which 
is found plentifully in the West Indies — that is the turtle. Some we 
saw had just been landed from a coasting boat. They are all lyinpr on 
their backs, and aa they cannot turn over on land they cannot run 
away, and can only idly flap their fins, or flappers, until somebody 
turns them. The turtles will be shipped to England or America, and 
I suppose their eventual destination is soup! The turtle fishery is a 
remimerative source of labour and revenue. 

In 1693, in the reign of William and Mary, the planning out of 
the new city of Kingston was entrusted to Colonel Sir Christian Lilly, 
of the Royal Engineers. He laid it out in the form of a parallelo- 
gram, one mile in length and half a mile in width ; in plan, therefore, 
like a modern American city. Kingston was constituted a corporate 
town in 1801, and in 1872, in the reign of our late Queen Victoria, 
the seat of government was finally removed here. Kingston now has 
a population of upwards of 50,000, and is lighted by electricity and 
gas. There is an excellent system of electric tramways, to which 1 
shall refer again. A cool breeze blows off the sea every day, from 
ten till four, and ha« received the name of "Tlie Doctor," from its 
health-giving qualities. The straight, parallel streets, crossing eucli 
other at right angles, do not conduce to the picturesque appearance 
of the place, yet they are teeming with life and activity. We saw 
country people selling their fruits and vegetables to passing pur- 
chasers. One basket contained sugar-cane cut into lengths, and very 
fond, indeed, the black children are of chewing sugar-cane — aye, and 
many of the black growai-ups too 1 It requires strong teeth, but the 
negroes seem to be blessed in this particular. These market people 
often tramp long distances, carrying their fruits, vegetables, and 
other produce on their heads — always on their heads — ^the head seems 
to be the toughest part of the negro's body. If their wares are more 
than can be accommodated on the head, then they employ a donkey. 
There waa also a man selling tobacco, not by the ounce, nor by the 
pound, but by the yard. It looked like coils of rope which he was 
selling! Not so. It waa native twist tobacco made up into con- 
tinuous coils, and mighty strong and crude it looked to me, yet it 
seemed to find a ready sale. And very jovial, too, this black gentle- 
man seemed to be, sitting sheltered by' his tattered umbrella from the 
fierce heat of tlie tropical sun. 

In an adjoining square stands a memorial statue to her lato 
Majesty Queen Victoria. It is of white marble, and has been 
admirably executed. Tlie statue shows to advantage against the dark 
foliage of the poinziana trees behind it. There were a number of the 
dark-brown seed-pods of the poinzianas hanging from the bough-s. 
The open gate behind the statue leads to a large garden and parade 
ground. Bevond that, and at a distance of two miles from Kingston, 
is situated the Ui>park Camp. Tliis park is about thirty acres in 
extent. One battalion of the West India Regiment is always 
stationed here, also a number of our British white troops. It is a 



Jamaicay the Crown of o\hT West Indian Possessions. 117 

very healthy situation for the black troops, and fairly so for the white 
soldiers. There is, however, a splendidly healthy camp for our white 
men, nineteen miles away, up in the hills, and which we shall visit 
presently. Round this camp many mahogany trees grow. The camp 
possesses a good barracks, a parade ground, a swimming bath, a 
hospital, and everything to make life pleasant. For example, some of 
the officers played polo on the Saturday afternoon I was there. The 
polo, of course, brings to the camp a number of visitors, and on these 
occasions the band of the West India Regiment plays. These black 
soldiers looked very picturesque, in their red Zouave jackets, and 
white turbans, wuth long red tassel. The bandmaster was an 
Englishman, and wore a white helmet. I was agreeably surprised 
with the quality of their music, especially of the wood wind, the 
expression being excellent, and a great credit to their trainer. We, 
being unused to tropical heat, in a town like Kingston, down at the 
sea-level, go out by the electric tramcar to Constant Spring Hotel, 
which is 600 feet above the soa and six miles inland. This is an 
excellent modern hotel, placed on the site of one of the oldest and 
most famous sugar estates in Jamaica, and which derived its name 
from its unfailing supply of water. Constant Spring Hotel has a 
frontage of 400 feet, and is three storeys high. As the ground falls 
from here all the way down to Kingston there is a splendid open view 
from the hotel. The mountain in the background is a part of the 
Blue Mountain Range, and its volcanic origin may easily be recog- 
nised from its peculiar rolling formation. Immediately opposite my 
bedroom window at Constant Spring was a handsome cocoa-nut palm- 
tree, and novel as all tropical vegetation was, it impressed me very 
much. We also saw that striking feature of Jamaican life, the 
"John Crow," the name familiarly given to the Turkey buzzard, 
which are a species of carrion vultures. These John crows perform 
so useful and sanitary a work, as scavengers, that they are not 
allowed to be molested, and anyone shooting a John crow is liable, I 
was told, to a penalty of £5. In consequence of this, they are 
fearless of man, and fly almost within arm's length. A peculiarity of 
their flight is that they never seem to flap their wings, but appear to 
sail through the air. 

We will now visit the great health camp of the white troops, up 
in the Blue Mountains, a journey of nineteen miles from Constant 
Spring. We pass through a straggling village, called Gordon Town, 
the halting place of troops on the march ; so we halt there also, opposite 
what seems to be the principal shop of the village. (See Fig. 1.) The 
walls are made of wattles, and the roof of thin split boards, called 
shingles. The shop is lighted by a suspended oil lamp, and oil and 
fruit seem to be the chief w^ares. Inside we saw the negro lady who 
runs the shop, and some of her children, or " pickneys," as she would 
call them— an abbreviated form of " pickaninnies." The women are 
generally showily dressed, being fond of bright colours. When going 
to or coming from their work they tie a string round their hips, 
through which they draw their skirts, so as to keep them well out of 
the dust and dirt*; their legs are thus bared from the knee down- 
wards. They step out with an easy, swinging, jaunty gait, the result 
of carrying heavy weights on their heads all their lives. Tliey nearly 



118 The Jouimal vfthe Manchester Geographical Society. 

always greet j'ou with a good-tempered smile, not to sav grin, and a 
" Marnin*, Massa," and a " Mamin', Missis.'^ 

Having changed our horses at Gordon Town, we continued our 
climb, and notice the many corkscrew bends of this mountain road. 
At one place there was a deep ravine, with precipitous sides, between 
us and the face of the opposite hill, along which we passed when we 
rounded the next bend. On that hill we saw a little church, the 
ministrations of which are performed by the chaplain of the camp, 
still some five miles higher up ; so that clergyman has the two duties, 
rather hard work, I should think. Our road passed amongst 
tamarinds, orange trees, palm trees, and banana groves, but as we got 
still higher the vegetation became less tropical, and we found such 
plants as grow in our more temperate zone. 

Having finished our nineteen miles' climb, we arrived at the 
Newcastle Camp, at a height of 4,130 feet above sea-level. Froude 
describes it thus : " High up on the mountain side, more often in the 
clouds than out of them, the cantonments of the English regiments. 
The slope where they had been placed was so steep that one wondered 
how they held on. They looked like tablecloths stretched out to dr}'." 
This simile of Froude's is not inapt, for at this altitude the rain- 
clouds suddenly gather round the mountain tops, and discharge them- 
selves so rapidly that it has been compared to the squeezing of a wet 
sponge. The barracks rise, tier on tier, for 500 feet. The camp was 
established up here at Newcastle for military and sanitary reasons. 
Down at Kingston and at Port Royal our white soldiers wore liable to 
yellow fever ; the authorities, therefore, decided to establish a camp up 
in the mountains, where the climatic conditions were more like those 
of England, and they found it here at Newcastle. Then, too, in the 
seclusion of this mountainous region, the soldier is free from all 
the temptations to dissipation which abound in the town below, and 
which are so fatal to the white man in the tropics. On the 
levelled drill ground I got into conversation with a soldier in khaki, 
and filling our pipes, I found that he was one of a detachment of 
Lancashire Fusiliers, then quartered there. I could not help thinking 
to myself what a remarkable coincidence it was that I, a Lancashire 
man, just come from Bury, the depot of the Lancashire Fusiliers, 
after crossing 4,000 miles of ocean, and climbing 4,000 feet of 
mountain, should all unwittingly light upon Lancashire Fusiliers up 
here-* 

It is said that when Queen Isabella of Spain asked Oiristopher 
Columbus what Jamaica was like, he crumpled up a piece of paper 
and placed it before her, as a correct delineation of the island. WeU, I 
think these mountain tops very well convey the idea of the crumples of 
that piece of paper. What a wonderful extent of view we get here ! 
Nineteen miles away is the har1x)ur of Kingston, and across that 
harbour, or lagoon, we can see, twenty-five miles away, the spit of 
land, or reef, on which stands Port Royal 1 

The Hon. H. T. Ronaldson, a member of the Jamaica Legislature 
— ^hence the title of honourable — invited us to visit his country 
property at Springfield, on the Milk River, some forty or fifty miles 

* I hoar that aince my visit the authorities have discontinued the use of the Newcastle Oamp. 




Flo. l.-JAMAICA— NATIVE SHOP, GORDON TOWN. [S.W.M. 




Fig. 2. -JAMAICA-SUGAR CANE TRUCKS, MONEYMUSK WORKS. IB.W.M. 



THIi NEW /ORK 

:-'^'3LIC LIEPARY, 



] A8TOR. ( SN<.X AND 

JTlLSfcN FOUNOATipMa. 



Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian Possessions. 119 

west of Kingston. It behoves all newly-arrived Europeans to avoid 
the mid-day heat, so we travelled by the afternoon train of the 
Jamaica Government Railway. Our host met us at the station where 
we left the train, with his pair-horse "buggy," the carriage of the 
country. As there is no twilight in the tropics, it quickly becomes 
quite dark, after the sun goes down, so we had the strange feeling of 
driving off into the unknown for about two hours. Our home for the 
time being was built in the bungalow style, on one floor, and was a 
good example of a West Indian house. Tlie windows were all pro- 
tected by closed jalousies. When our hostess wanted some oranges, 
she just sent a black boy up an orange tree to gather some; and, 
truth to tell, I ate a quantity of her oranges. 

In Jamaica all country properties, if they are not sugar estates, 
coffee plantations, or banana cultivations, are called "Pens." Now, 
Mr. Ronaldsoo's property is a Pen, and he rears cattle and horsee 
here by the thousand. To call up the horses, Mr. Ronaldson'e heaxl 
man, a negro named Myers, rode on to a little mound, and, sitting 
motionless on his horse under the shade of a mango tree, would whistle 
in a peculiar way, and the horses would oome trotting up from all 
directions in answer to Che call. The animals come down to the 
stream to drink. We looked down stream, and saw a hurdle or fence 
placed in and aconoss the river. This not only keeps the cattle from 
straying, but prevents the alligators coming up from the sea. Shortly 
before our visit an alligator had carried off some lambs. 

The Springfield Pen is bounded on the western side by the Milk 
River, which rejoices in the possession of a hot mineral spring, which 
the natives tell you is a sure cure for rheumatism, gout, and all such 
complaints. Here is the Milk River Bathing Establishment. The 
spring is a thermal saline-calcic, and its temperature is 92 deg. Fah. 
I have myself seen live fish swimming in the warm water in one of 
the bath-rooms ; it had found its way there from the adjoining river— 
indeed, fishing is one of the few amusements of this spot. A picnic, 
to which our kind hostess took us, afforded us a splendid opportunity 
of studying tropical foliage. We saw the ordinary orchid of the 
West Indies, growing on boughs overhanging the water, to which 
they are self -attached. Of very great beauty is the variety 
of creepers, which hang so gracefully from bough to bough, 
and unite the whole in one delicate tracery. Over our heads passed 
green parrots in rapid flight, while gorgeous little humming-birds 
flitted from flower to flower. 

Mr. Ronaldson kindly took us to see a large sugar estate and 
factory near his place. As far back, I believe, as the reign of Charlea 
II. sugar was first shipped to us in England, the beginning of a trade 
which was a fruitful source of wealth to the colony, and which, in the- 
eighteenth century, brought Jamaica to the zenith of her prosperity.. 
The canes grow to a height of 6 to 10 feet, and are jointed at intervals 
all the way up, terminating in long sharp leaves or blades. The 
sugar cane is propagated by cuttings from the root end, which are 
planted in trenches, in the spring or autumn. A plantation lasts 
from six to ten years. When the leaves at the joints decay, and the 
cane turns yellow, the plant has attained its maturity, and is ready 
for cutting down. The juice is pressed out of the ripe cane, and is^ 



120 The JoumcU of the Mcmchester Geographical Society. 

boiled down, until the sugar crystallises out. We saw a native cane 
mill. The women were carrying the cane cut into such lengths aa 
they can easily carry on their heads. The canes are then passed 
through rollers turned by a horse, which was yoked to a long pole. 
The juice runs along a wooden trough, and drops into a tub b^ow. 
The juice is next boiled, and run into moulds, out of which, when cold, 
the sugar is turned a dark crystalline mass, about the size, and shape, 
as if it had been turned out of a child's sea-side bucket or a small 
flower pot. This is, of course, the old-faahioned, rough-and-ready 
way of doing things, by the native cultivating his own sugar patch. 
Tilings are very differently managed by the large planter, with 
hundreds of acres under sugar cultivation. 

At the Moneymusk Estate, which we visited with Mr. Ronaldson, 
the cut canes were brought to the mill, piled up in a train of narrow- 
gauge railway wagons, and drawn by a team of eight, or ten, or a dozen 
oxen, according to the number of wagons in the train. (See Fig. 2.) Tou 
will judge the extent of this Moneymusk sugar estate when I tell you 
that there are some nine miles of narrow-gauge railway to connect 
up all the cane-fields with the mill. So palatable and nutritive is 
the juice of the sugar cane that every creature that munches it during 
the harvest — a thing they are very fond of doing — negroes, horses, 
mules and cattle, all seem to derive vigour from it, and to grow fat 
and well-looking. Arrived at the sugar factory, the canes are fed 
by the men on the travelling lattice creeper. This creeper reminds us 
of those attached to the scutching machines of our cotton mills, only, 
of course, this is much rougher and stronger. The lattice creeper 
delivers the canes to a series of powerful and heavy iron rollers, driven 
by a large steam engine. The pressed juice is passed on through 
tubes to the pans, while the crushed and broken woody fibre of the 
canes, which is now called " trash," quickly dries, and makes excellent 
fuel for the steam boilers. The place is lighted by electric light. 
Here, too, we see Indian Coolies. Not only does he differ 
from the negro in the more refined type of his features, and 
the k)ng dark hair, instead of the woolly pate, but even his dress is 
different, and he retains his Indian turban and other clothing. The 
introduction of the coolie has proved a great benefit to the colony, 
as these Orientals are so much more reliable than the negroes, whose 
labour cannot be depended on ; they have too great a tendency to 
throw down tlieir tools when they have satisfied inmiediate require- 
ments, and not to work again until they are in want. The coolies are 
indentured for five years, after which many of them settle in the 
island, while others return to India with the bulk of their earnings. 

The Moneymusk Sugar Factory is a large place. It contains 
vacimm boiling pans, and all modem scientific appliances, by which 
the cane-juice is treated, until the sugar crystallises. The scientific 
text-books speak of it as an *' amorphous mass," and tell us that sugar 
crystals are "monoclinic prisms, which have a specific gravity of 
1"606." But I will spare you scientific technicalities! The syrup 
which comes from the evaporating pans is molasses or treacle, from 
the fermented juice of which is distilled that well-known spirit, rum, 
to which Jamaica has given its name, which is so necessary to the 
sailor's glass of grog, and which is not altogether unknown in some 



Javiaica, tiie Crown of our West Indian FoBSeaisions. 121 

teacups in this country ! Well, rum is distilled at these works, and, 
indeed, at all the Jamaican sugar works. 

Notwithstanding all mechanical improvements, and greater applied 
science, the West Indian planter has found it well-nigh impossible to 
compete with Continental subsidised beet-root sugar, and, in conB&- 
quence, many sugar estates have gone out of cultivation, and the 
island has been impoverished. It is the distillation of rum which now 
chiefly makes the present estates remunerative. We saw casks of 
sugar and puncheons of rum on their way to the wharf for shipment. 
Each dray was drawn by a team of oxen. Now, these huge teams are 
very awkward and elums}' affairs to meet, so one or more of the 
attendant negroes emits strange and weird sounds on an old cow's 
horn, which he carries for the purpose, and with which he gives 
warning to any traffic which might be coming round a bend in the 
road. 

I^e care and the breeding of these draught cattle is an important 
matter. One of the daily incidents is taking the working herd to 
water in an adjacent pond. It has been found that East Indian cattle, 
owing to some difference in their structural anatomy, are better for 
draught purposes than either the native or the European animal, and 
that the cross between the East Indian, such as the Zebu and the 
Mysore, makes about the most useful stock for draught purposes that 
can be desired. You, therefore, commonly see the humps and long 
horns of the Indian beasts. Tliere are, of course, the more ordinary 
breeds of cattle for beef purposes. 

We saw and learned a great deal while we were the guests of our 
kind friends at Springfield, Milk River, and we said good-bye to them 
with a feeling of sincere regret. Thence we went to Mandeville, 
which has the reputation of being one of the most healthy places in 
the island. It is 2,131 feet above sea-level, and consequently has a 
more equable climate than Kingston, nearly sixty miles away. Man- 
deville strikingly reselmbles an English village, the houses being 
grouped round a square, or common, containing several acres of 
prrassy turf, only, as Froude says, you have here silk-cotton and mango 
trees instead of the English elm. At one comer of the common is 
the Parish Church, with its square tower, in which hangs an old peal 
of bells. We attended service here on the Sunday, and were much 
impressed by the hearty, though slow, singing of the hymns by the 
black congregation. The school-house adjoins the church. The 
school-children sat up in the gallery, which has a carved open-work 
front, and we were highly amused to see a long row of bare black toes 
poking out through the open-work. The children walk barefoot to 
church with their parents, who are wearing smart boots, though on 
week-days they, too, may go barefoot. Indeed, on Sundays, the whole 
costume of these people displays the utmost possible smartness and 
brilliancy of colour. 

On the opposite side of the green to the church stands the Court- 
house, quite an imposing building for this small town, in which I 
heard an amusing pig-stealing case between two black men of great 
volubility. 

I don't think I have ever seen so many fireflies as I saw here at 
Ifandeville; I have seen them elsewhere, but, I think, none so 



122 Tlie Jouimal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

numerous, nor so brilliant, as the Mandeville fireflies. When night 
succeeds day these fairy lamps appear flitting about through the trees, 
and meandering, now up, now down, over this common, and, as it 
were, peopling the air, to your imagination, with Shakespeare's fairj- 
characters from the ''Midsummer Night's Dream." They are a 
species of flying beetle, whose antennae become brilliantly phos- 
phorescent, from which the Jamaicans sometimes call them ''Gig- 
lamps." 

At another corner of the Green, or Common, at Mandeville is the 
Market. Mandeville Market seems to be one of the most important, 
and most largely attended, of all the markets in the island. As we 
entered the market enclosure we noticed a bare-footed negress, in a 
cotton dress, selling yams. The yam is a sort of cousin to the potato, 
and, indeed, in the tropics, the yam takes its place. The yam is an 
herbaceous twining plant, or vine, with large tuberous roots. These 
tubers in the West Indies often grow to three feet in length, and weigh 
as much as thirty pounds. This woman's yams were very large. 
When boiled or roasted they are mealy, like a potato — ^indeed, I found 
the yams just like a rather solid potato. 

Now we come to a stall of cassava-oake sellers. The cassava is a 
shrub, which grows to a height of about eight feet; it has a rather 
broadiah leaf and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers. It is a 
remarkable fact that the roots of the cassava when eaten raw are a 
fatal poison both to man and beast, but when properly prepared with 
heat form a valuable food, on which the natives of the West Indies, 
and of South America, largely subsist. It is the juice which is the 
poison; this is carefully pressed out, and the roots, which are white, 
soft, and farinaceous, are ground into flour. The flour is baked in 
thin, round cakes, and very good I found them with afternoon tea. 
From the starchy parts of pure cassava flour is manufactured the 
"tapioca," so well-known to every English housekeeper. 

So far, we have been only in the more populous and faahionable 
parts of Jamaica, but I was deMirous of visiting the more remote 
districts of the island, and those not so easily accessible by railway. 
We, therefore, chartered at Mandeville a vehicle, whidi we designated 
"the Van," and in which we travelled for nearly 400 miles; and I 
now ask you to acoompMiny us on this " Tan " journey. I may describe 
the " Van " as a light, three-seated char-a-banc. Our black driver 
sits on the front seat, and beside him is our food-basket, which also 
did duty as our medicine-ohest, because it carried those necessary 
medicines, without which it is never safe to be in the 
tropics. Mrs. Mellor and I sat on the second seat. The 
third seat was removed to accommodate our luggage. We had 
a tarpaulin roof, which served as a protection both from sun and 
rain, the latter of which in these latitudes comes down with great 
suddenness and violence. The van was drawn by three horses abreast, 
and we drove them, on an average, nineteen and a half miles a day. 

The high lands, the red soil, and the climate of the Mandeville 
district all conduce to the excellent p^rowth of coffee. Our first stop, 
therefore, on leaving Mandeville, after a seven miles' drive, was at 
the coffee plantation of Mr. Wynne, at Brokenhurst, one of the largest 
coffee plantations in Jamaica. The coffee trees, or bushes, are planted 



Jamaicay the Crown of our West Indian Possessions. 123 

about eight feet apart, and grow from three to eiglit or ten feet in 
height. In appearance they greatly resemble a laureetina, and their 
blossoms are fragrant white flowers, something like clematis. A cold, 
high wind inflicts severe damage on the coffee; so tall trees, with 
whitish bark, called " trumpet trees " from their long, straight stems, 
are planted amongst the coffee, to break the force of a high wind, 
and to afford some protection. 

The coffee berry, when ripe, is of a bright, purplish-red colour, 
very much like a cherry in appearance. The first business, of course, 
is to pick the ripe coffee berries, as we saw a barefooted negress 
doing. She put the red, fleshy berries into the large basket on her 
head. The berries have then to undergo quite a series of processes 
before the coffee is ready for market. The ripe berries are first 
brought into the works by the negroes with the baskets full of berries 
on their heads. The berries are then run through the "pulper," a 
machine which takes nearly all the pulp off the kernel. Mr. Wynne 
had a steam engine to turn his machines, which I noticed was made 
by Messrs. W. H. Bailey and Co., of Salford, and which was pleasing 
to see in a land where I found that nearly all British-maxle things 
wero beaten out by American manufactures. The coffee kernels, 
after coming from the pulping machine, are run into tanks, where 
they are frequently agitated to wash off any remaining pulp. After 
the coffee kernels are removed from the tanks they are spread out 
thoroTighly to dry in the sun, on large platforms, or terraces, made of 
cement. These platforms are called "barbecues.'' (See Fig. 3.) 
Mr. Wynne's barbecues, at Brokenhurst, cover an acre of ground. 
The name "barbecue" is derived from the aboriginal Indian name 
for the places on which they dried their fruit and fish and hogs. 
Hence we have the term " barbecued pig " for dried pig. For example, 
the well-known lines in the " Ingold-sby Legends": — 

" Now the festive board with viands is stored. 
Savoury dishes be there, I ween; 
Rich puddings and big, a barbecued pig. 
And ox-tail soup in a china tureen." 

But to come back to the coffee. We saw the men spreading the 
coffee kernels, or corns, over the barbecue. Some little art is 
required in doing this, so that the layer of coffee corns shall be the 
proper thickness, to ensure the proper and equal drying. So impor- 
tant to the resulting quality of the coffee is the even, or regular, 
drying of the coffee corns that they undergo a treatment which 
suggests haymaking. They are raked into rows; thus each coffee- 
corn is turned over, those underneath coming to the siuiace, and so 
forth. This operation is known as "rowing" or "turning" tho 
coffee. If the partially-dried coffee once gets wetted its quality and 
flavour are damaged, and the selling value impaired. To guard 
against any such loss the coffee planter and his people are constantly 
on the watch for the least sign of rain, and if there is any appearance 
of a threatening cloud the rows of coffee are immediately pushed 
hurriedly 'along into little water-tight huts. When the rain is 
passed, and the barbecues are dry again, the coffee is brought out of 



124 The Jounud of the Mancliester Geographical Society, 

the huts, and agaiu spread over the barbecues. When the coffee 
kernels are thoroughly dry they are brought into the works again, 
and are passed through a mill, whidi strips off the horny outer skin. 
This done, the two halves of the kernel come apart, and are then the 
coffee corns, with one flattened side, and one rounded side, as we know 
them. The coffee corns are then graded into sizes, and the bad corns 
are thrown out. This process is called *' sizing,'' and is accomplished 
by passing the coffee through sieves of different gauges of mesh. The 
coffee is then ready for packing in casks for shipment. And there 
we will say "Good-bye" to coffee; only let me add that if you get 
hold of a cup of the right quality of Jamaica coffee you will find none 
better. 

On our first long day's drive we stopped the van in the village of 
Santa Cruz for lunch, and to bait the horses, which consisted simply 
in letting them ramble beside a stream, and crop the grass and drink 
the water. The village consists of a few stores — as the open-front 
shops, with their shingle roofs, are called here — after the American 
way. That this is an old village is evidenced by its Spanish name, 
Santa Cruz, and it gives this name to the mountains running from 
here down to the south coast of the island. 

We spent the resjt of the day in driving up to Malvern House, the 
highest point of the Santa Cruz Mountains, and we arrived in the 
court-yard in pouring rain. Nevertheless, it is probably the driest 
region of the island, with a charming climate, exceptionally beneficial 
in all kinds of lung trouble. Malvern House is a remarkable old 
house, formerly the residence of a sugar planter, now occupied by 
Mi's. Lawrence, who is glad to take lodgers, who come up to these 
mountains for their health. From the house we get a fine view, 
looking for five-and-twenty miles, over valley and hill, in a westerly 
direction. Down at sea-level, in the bottom of the valley, in the 
middle distance of our view, is the town of Black River, where the 
river of that name runs into the Caribbean Sea. To get there we 
drive through the open gate, and immediately down a hill four miles 
long, and so steep that the hind wheels of the van had to be tied with 
rope to prevent their turning round. Arrived safely at the bottom, 
a good smart drive along the flat country, at sea-level, brings ur 
into the main street of Black River. It is a street of stores, or shops, 
in which the shop windows are conspicuous by their absence. As 
the buildings seem mostly of wood, a fire here would be a serious 
matter. As one safeguard, however, against such a catastrophe 
Black River is lighted by electric light, and I must add that I was 
not a little astonished at the enterprise of this remote little West 
Indian town. Tlie electrical machinery is worked by steam engines 
burning wood. We noticed the two negro policemen; their white 
tunics and helmets were in strong contrast to their black faces and 
hands. At the further end of this street is the bridge spanning the 
river after which this town is named. 

Black River is not so healthy as Mandeville and the Santa Cruz 
Mountains. Adjoining the river is a swamp, the home of mosquitoes, 
the bite of which will probably cause an attack of malarial fever, conse- 
quently few tourists come to Black River. Yet it is an interesting 
place, for it is the chief shipping place in Jamaica for logwood and 



V - 







Fio. 8.-JAMA1CA-C0FFBK BARBECUES AT BROKBNHURST. {B. W, M, 




Fig. 4.— JAMAICA -"DUGOUTa" AND BUILDER. 



{B. W. M. 



Javiaica, the Crcnvn of oar West Indian Possessions. 125 

fustic, which are grown largely in the island, especially logwood. 
These two valuable dyewoods are stored in sheds, on either side of the 
mouth of the Black River, and then conveyed by boats to ships lying 
outside. This seems to be the great logwood-producing district of 
Jamaica. We also visited a little cove, a few miles west of Black 
River, to which the logwood trees, when cut down, are brought. They 
are then loaded in small coasting boats, and taken to Black River, or 
one of the shipping harbours along the coast. Through the rocky 
entrance the coasting boats, with their load of logwood, pass out into 
the open sea, and coast along until they come to Black River, or 
Luoea, or one of the larger bays, where the wood can be transferred 
to a large ship. I cannot describe to you the beauty of the scene 
we saw. The blue water, almost tideless, the foliage on the bank, 
and the cloudless, deep blue tropical sky above. The smaller boats, 
or canoes, used by the native people are shaped and hollowed out of 
the trunk of a single tree, generally the ceiba, or silk-cotton tree, 
and sometimes out of the bread-fruit tree. We noticed a negi'o 
boat-builder at work. (See Fig. 4.) There was no joint in his boat, 
and the grain of the wood ran broadly down its side. He was work- 
ing under the shady and spreading branches of a bread-fruit tree, 
the bright green leaves of which are very large, and are divided 
into seven or nine spear-shaped points. The bread-fruit is pale 
green in colour, globular in form, and about the size of a child's head. 
It contains a fibrous pulp, which becomes juicy and yellow when ripe. 
It is a valuable tropical food-stuff, is prepared for use in various ways, 
and is said to resemble in flavour the crumb of wheaten bread, mixed 
with Jerusalem artichoke. 

In the Black River district there is a beautiful bamboo avenue, 
sometimes called the "Lovers' Walk." This luxuriant growth of 
bamboo foliage extends along the high road, for two and a half miles, 
^' those feather-like bamboos high arching overhead, and screening 
us under their noble canopy," as Michael Scott expresses it, in " Tom 
Cringle's Log." 

Near the Bamboo Avenue we crossed a higher reach of the Blaok 
River by fording. Bridges are comparatively few and far between, 
80 very often vehicles must go through the stream. When we forded 
this river, in our van, we met a cart and three horses also fording it. 
It is the general custom in Jamaica, when fording, to stop in mid- 
stream ; then to turn the horses' heads up stream, and there let them 
rest, and be cooled in the flowing water. Their heads being up-stream 
ensures that clean, fresh water will flow towards them to drink. We 
stopped the van in the fords like this many a time, and so clean and 
so fresh is the flowing water that I have seen quite large fish swim 
through the spokes of our wheels while we have been so standing. 

Higher up the stream we come to the picturesque Y. S. Falls. I 
do not know how they got this strange alphabetical name, but I do 
know that they are part of the Y. S. estate, and that a son of Thomas 
Soott, one of the judges of Charles I., arrived here in the latter part 
of the 17th century, and settled on the Y. S. sugar estate ; this estate, 
therefore, possesses some antiquity. We noticed the luxuriant growth 
of tropical creepers over the water. To get to these Y. S. Falls we 



126 27ie Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

had to follow a negro, who cleared the way for us with his cutlass, or 
machete, through the thick, long tangle of grass. We dien 
experienced one of the drawbacks of a tropical country. Our clothes 
got pretty well covered with ticks, tiny insects which burrow into 
your skin, and set up a great deal of irritation and inflammation. 
After walking through the thick grass we spent an hour doing nothing 
else but pick ticks off our clothes. Ticks abound in grass in which 
cattle pasture, and they multiply prodigiously under a tropic sun. 
It is never safe to go off the roads and footpaths, and wander among 
the grass, or you will probably suffer. The white dress usually worn 
by the ladies has the advantage that these minute insects are easily 
seen upon it. 

We now arrive at Savan 'la Mar, and have covered some ninety 
miles' drive in the van since we started from Mandevillcw Savan 'la 
Mar (and the name shows its Spanish derivation) is the centre of 22 
sugar estate®, consequently much sugar is shipped from here ; indeed, 
the one broad street of Savan 'la Mar is said to be made from the 
ballast dumped here by the vessels coming to load sugar. In 1744 
a great hurricane and tidal wave swept Savan 'la Mar, and the houses, 
the people, and their cattle were destroyed. Therefore, Savan 'la 
Mar as we see it to-day is a comparatively recent place. At the mouth 
of the Savan 'la Mar harbour there is a station of the river or water 
police, erected upon the ruined walls of the old fort of Spanish times. 
Within the walls are two old Spanish cannons, greatly worn away, of 
course, by corrosion. We saw, sitting on the wall, a watei^ 
policeman, busily engaged chewing sugar-cane. At the time of our 
visit there were here a three-masted schooner, laden with rum for 
London, and a Russian barque laden with logwood. 

Up to this point we have been travelling westwards, along the 
south coast of the island. Savan 'la Mar is the last town in that 
direction. Let us suppose, then, that we have taken one of the 
coasting boats and rounded the westernmost point of the island, and 
now arrive by water at Lucea, the most westerly town on the north 
coast of Jamaica. This town, Lucea, is in the heart of a deep bay of 
horse-shoe form, the hills at the entrance coming near together; 
while the harbour, where the town is situated, is a deep, almost 
circular, basin. We stayed at a large house, which rejoiced in the 
title Devonshire House, and was the only decent lodging-house at 
Lucea. 

Saturday is market-day at Lucea, and we saw the people trooping 
along the main street, past Devonshire! House, on the Saturday 
morning that we were at Lucea, each with their large baskets of market- 
wares on their heads, on their way to market. (See Fig. 5.) No doubt 
marketday brings a great many people into the town from the 
surrounding districts, yet the normal population of the somewhat 
inaccessible little to\<Ti of Lucea is about 2,000; because the excellent 
shelter of its natural harbour causes to centre here the coasting trade 
from all the adjacent coves. The vessels which we pass in leaving 
Lucea are all logwood boats. Altojrether Lucea is a peaceful and 
lovely spot, and for beauty and colouring its bay might be compared 
to a tropical Bay of Naples. The coasting vessels are often glad 
of a sheltered harbour like that at Lucea, as we saw one day when 



Jamaica, the Grown of our West Indian Posaeasions. 127 

near Lucea; the wind was suddenly risiflg, the water was being 
lashed into fury and the storm-clouds were rapidly gathering, the 
leaf-boughs of the cocoa-nut palms were being blown over to one side, 
and there was every indication of a heavy tropical storm, so we made 
for shelter before it became any worse. 

Now travelling eastwards, along the north coast, we pass another 
of thos0 beautiful searinlets, or covess, with which the« shoree of 
Jamaica are so abundantly indented. This large cove is called 
Mosquito Cove, no doubt from the prevalence here of mosquitoes, but 
those annoying insects did not worry me there. Do not imagine, 
though, that I escaped, for whenever and whenever mosquitoes could 
get at me they did. No doubt, fresh European blood is a more tasty 
morsel than that of persons who have lived years in the tropics. 
Mosquito curtains round your bed are a necessity. Beyond its dis- 
comfort, the bite of an ordinary mosquito is innocuous, but his 
brother of the swamp must be avoided because of the poison of 
malarial fever. 

A twenty miW drive now brings us into the Market Square of 
Montego Bay, the second largest town in Jamaica. In the centre of 
the square are tall and graceful casserina trees, which, I think, rather 
suggest willows. On the right, through the trees, is the large and 
handsome Courthouse. When Jamaica was taken from the Spaniards, 
in 1655, about 1,500 slaves fled to the mountains, and were called 
*' Maroons," a name which signifies "hog-hunters." The Maroons 
led a somewhat lawless life, and frequently harrassed the town- 
dwellers. In 1796 two Maroons were found guilty here, at Montego 
Bay, of felony, and were sentenced to receive a few lashes at a cart^a- 
tail, whereupon the body of Maroons took up arms and commenced a 
rebellion, which was only finally quelled by their being hunted by 
bloodhounds. The name of this place, Montego Bay, is derived from 
the Spanish " Manteca," which means " hog-lard," from the fact that 
the principal trade of this town during the Spanish occupation was 
the boiling down of swine's flesh into lard, of which large quantities 
-were shipped to Havana and other Spanish ports. So at this place 
you have Maroons or Hog-hunters, and Montego Bay or Port for lard. 
That may have been the trade of Spanish times; I shall now show 
you something of the trade of Montego Bay under the Engli^ regime. 

In a street just behind the Court-house is a manufactory for 
'* Ippi-Appi " hats, which is the local name for those very soft 
and finely-plaited straw hats known to us as "Panama" hats. We 
eawa number of women plaiting Ippi-Appi hats, and two of them good- 
naturedly sat in the light in the doorway to allow me to (^otograph 
them. They will not all do this, for they are afraid you want to 
make fun of them. Their thick lips and woolly pates show that they 
are pure negresses, although they are West^Indian born. They had 
their plaiting in their hands. These Ippi-Appi hats cost in Jamaica 
from four to twenty shillings each, according to the fineness of the 
plait. 

But a far greater industry here is the fruit trade, vast quantities 
of which, more particularly bananas, are shipped from Montego Bay, 
as indeed from all the larger ports of the island. The banana trade 
is so greatly the staple industry of Jamaica, that we must here give 



128 The Journal of the MancJiester Geographical Society. 

it some attention. We have already seen that cane-growing and the 
sugar industry became a depressed and losing business, and that 
thousands of acres of sugar plantations went out of cultivation, owing 
to the competition of Continental subsidised sugar. In 1863 the 
experiment was tried of shipping bananas, as a fruit, to America. 
That proved so successful that the banana has very largely supplanted 
the sugar cane, and many sugar plantations have been converted into 
banana cultivations. We have seen that coffee flourishes in the cool 
mountain districts; the banana is quite different in this respect, for 
it prefers a hot climate, and will only grow in perfection on the ridi 
plain land, as it draws much nourishment from the soil. To prepare 
the land for a banana plantation it must first be ploughed, with a 
very large plough, drawn by eight or ten oxen. The plants are then 
set in straight rows ten to fifteen feet apart. The banana plants or 
trees, as we may now call them, grow to a height of ten to fifteen feet. 
At the end of a year the first crop is ready for gathering. Hie tree 
bears but one buncli of bananas ; when this bunch is gathered the 
tree is cut down, leaving a sucker, which forms next year's tree. 
This is continued for six or seven years, when the ground becomes so 
full of roots that it is necessary to plough it up and replant. We 
saw bananas being gathered. As the bunch hangs from the tree it 
is far above the reach of the cutters, and to bring it to the ground 
without injury requires considerable practice. With his cutlass, or 
machete, the cutter slashes the stem of the tree about half through; 
the weight of the bunch of bananas immediately causes the plant to 
bend down ; as it bends, the man seizes hold of the stem at the lower 
end of the bunch, and at the same moment he chops the bunch from 
the plant with one blow of his machete. With another sweep of his 
machete he chops off the great crimson -purple bloom at the end of 
the etem in his hand. The bunch is then ready to be carted off to the 
wharf. Each bunch of bananas, and they weigh about 70 lbs. each, is 
carried on the heads of black people from the railway wagons, across 
tlie wharf, up the sliip's gangway, and so to the hold of the ship. 
Tliese black porters, men and women, receive a check for each bundi 
they carry on board, and are paid accordingly. Our departure was 
delayed until the whole of the consigmnent, some 27,000 bunches, 
was on board, and a verj' hot job it was, I can tell you, under the 
tropical sun, to carry all that quantity of fruit on board. 

At -Montego Bay, however, the steamships are not able to come 
alongside the wharf, but remain out in the deeper water of the bay. 
The bunches of bananas, therefore, have to be carried out to the 
steamers in little boats; the bananas are carried down on the heads 
of the black people, on to the jetty, just as in the other case, but 
instead of going directly on board ship they must be handed down 
into the small boat. Tliis, of course, necessitates an additional 
handling, and is therefore more costly. When the small boat is 
loaded as full of bananas as it can safely carry the fruit is generally 
covered with the large banana leaves, to keep the heat of the sun's 
rays off it, otherwise it would probably become over-ripe before it 
arrived at its destination, which would mean great loss to the 
shipper. The boat then pushes off with its luscious freight to the ship 



Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian Possessionem 129 

waiting out in the bay. I am informed that taking an average of 
years the cultivation of bananas yields £10 an acre. The banana is 
a very wholesome and easily-digested fruit, especially with a little 
bread or a biscuit, and it is said to be as nutritious and sustaining, if 
not more so, than any farinaceous food of the same value. 

A twenty-two miles' drive along the coast brings us to the little 
town of Falmouth. Although Falmouth is one of the oldest towns in 
the island it has nothing specially to interest us, as it is only a repeti- 
tion of what we have already seen ; yet its antiquated waterworks, at 
Martha Brae, are both interesting and picturesque. These consist 
of a reservoir, and a large antique bucket water-wheel, which raises 
the water to a sufficient elevation to supply Falmouth with water by 
its own gravitation. This, I am told, is similar to the Moorish 
methods of irrigation. 

We now come to Brown's Town, after driving eastwards for 
another twenty-five miles. Brown's Town possesses only one hotel, 
which is known by the modest title of "Mrs. Delisser's Lodgings." 
Hie open windows on the ground floor are those of the dining-room, 
anii the drawing-room is immediately above ; to get to the drawing- 
room, when you have dined, you must come outside, and ascend by the 
broad flight of stone steps. The real ruler of the establishment at the time 
of our visit was Emma, the black waitress, or butler, as she would call 
herself. Emma was, as the Yankees would say, a real smart girl. 
Quick and sharp as a needle, full of repartee and laughter, she would 
see that you were well attended to, would give you useful hints for 
your journey, and took jolly good care that you did not go before 
you paid your bill, or before you gave her a good tip, too. Emma 
was the ablest and smartest black servant we encountered, but I do 
not think that you will find her there now, for she confided to us 
that she had a nice young black man. and was not going to remain 
single very long. 

The district round Brown's Town is sometimes called " The Garden 
of Jamaica," and we could indeed understand why it should receive 
so delightful a name when we came across a field of growing pine- 
apples, and saw how large and luxuriant the fruit was. Luscious 
pine-apples grow in profusion here, and are as cheap as plentiful. 
Froude writes : " Pine-apples, of which one can eat as much as one 
likes in these countries with immunity from after-suffering." And 
from personal experience I am bound to say that I coincide in 
Froude's opinion. 

We passed a large pond, known as Friendship Big Pond. In 
front of the pond are some graceful bamboo trees, which have been 
compared to ostrich feathers. These bamboos grow to a height of 
thirty feet and upwards. We stood under one of the bamboos, down 
by the water's edge, watching some lovely little green lizards. Our 
movements attracted the attention of some negreeses, who were road 
menders. By road-menders you must more correctly understand 
breakers of stones for mending the roads, for here we do not see men 
standing over a heap of stones at work with a long hammer, such as 
we are accustomed to in England. In Jamaica the negro women sit 



130 The JouimaZ of the Manchester Geographical Society, 

on the stoD^heape, hammering away at the stones between their 
bare feet. You generally find them at this work in groups of three 
or four. 

Quite a short drive from Brown's Town is Runaway Bay. You 
will remember that at the outset I told you that when the Spaniards 
were finally routed, near Ocho Rios, in 1660, their leader, Don Sasi, 
the last of the Spanish Governors fied, and escaped to Cuba in a 
canoe, from a spot, called from that circumstance, " Runaway Bay." 

A few miles' drive along the coast, eastwards, brings us to Ocho 
Rios Bay, the historical spot to whioh I have already aUuded ; for it 
was in this bay of Odio Rios that Don Sasi landed in 1658, with 
thirty companies of Spanish infantry, to recapture Jamaica from the 
English ; it was here that the Spaniards were utterly routed by Crom- 
well's troops, under Colonel D'Oyley ; and it was from here that Don 
Sasi fled to Runaway Bay. The place retains its Spanish name, ** Ocho 
Rios," whidh means " Eight Rivers," so called because eight streams 
find their way into the sea in the immediate vicinity, and nearly every 
one of the eight has a beautiful waterfall. We noticed here the usutd 
Jamaican practice of erecting a foot-bridge, so that pedestrians can 
cross the river with dry feet, while all vehicles, horses, and cattle 
must ford the river. We visit some of these waterfalls, and first the 
famous Llandover}^ Falls, which take their name from the neigh- 
bouring sugar estate of Llandovery. The Llandovery Falls are 
famous, not merely for their own beauty, but because the view of 
the falls was adopted by the Government for the Jamaican postage 
stamp. This view has, therefore, gone broadcast over the world, in 
stamps on letters, and so must be familiar to multitudes, who possibly 
have thought that the pretty waterfall postage stamp was an 
imaginary picture. These Llandovery Falls will, I fear, soon begin 
to lose their fame, for after the period of mourning for Queen 
Victoria the Government adopted the Jamaican ooat-of-arms for their 
stamps. 

A few miles further on are the falls of Roaring River, the largest 
falls in the island. The roaring of this river can be heard for a long 
distance, even some way out at sea, hence the name. Roaring River 
differs from most rivers and streams, which tear and cut their way 
through soil and rock, thus forming their falls by erosion. Roaring 
River is charged with lime and silica in solution, and these it deposits 
in layers and walls, which check and deflect the flow of water, turning 
it now to right, now to left, and immediately new deposits and new 
channels begin to form. These falls, then, are not the drop of one 
solid body of water, but, so to speak, are the agglomeration of an 
immense number of small cascades, which shine a dazzling white in 
the sunshine, as they fall over the bluff, or promontory, formed of its 
own deposit. 

Another beautiful river of the Ocho Rios group is called the White 
River, and we saw, on our visit, " washing-day " at one of the little 
villagee on the White River. The linen and clothes to be washed 
are taken into the river, scrubbed on the large stones and boulders, 
and rinsed and soaked in the running waters of the river. We 
noticed that the river here looks white and seething, just as if it had 
come over a fall, and such is, indeed, the case. 




Fio 5 -JAMAICA— STREET IN LUCEA 



[B. W. M. 




Fig. 6.-JAMAICA— TOM CKINGLK'S COTTON TREE. 



\E. W M. 



Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian Possessions. 131 

A short distance further up are the falla of White 
River, and very beautiful they are, with the glints of sun- 
shine through the leaves of the surrounding trees playing upon the 
rapidly-moving masses of water. These falls have a certain resem- 
blance to the Llandovery Falls, the original of the postage stamps, 
only, I think, of the two, these are the more beautiful. 
In the south of the island we visited Black River, and here is White 
River in the north. If we follow the stream down to where it flows 
into the sea, we can appreciate the reaaon for its namer—the White 
River — for although the water seems clear and limpid higher up, 
down here, where the river is wider and more fallow, we see that 
the water holds so much lime, and so forth, in suspension that the 
river has an almost milky appearance. This is most marked as the 
river-water mingles with the clear blue water of the Caribbean Sea. 
The milky, or limy, water spreads out in an ever-widening fan-shaped 
form, in the clear salt water for a long distance, before it ceases to 
be distinguishable. 

Continuing our way eastwards, for about ten miles, we come to 
Port Maria, another spot of great historic interest, for 410 years ago, 
on the 5th of May, 1494, Christopher Columbus, in his second voyage 
of discovery, sailed under this headland, and dropped anchor in this 
picturesque bay. Columbus thought it so beautiful a harbour and 
anchorage that he gave it the name of " Santa Gloria." As we have 
already referred to the fortunes of Columbus, I will only add that 
this place was subsequently called " Port Sancta Maria," which has 
been abbreviated down to Port Maria. The headland of Port Maria 
was the nearest approach to a cliff running out into the sea that I 
saw in the island. The straggling street of the little town stretches 
some distance up the bank of the river. Port Maria suffered great 
devastation from the fearful hurricane which swept over the island 
in August of 1903. The north-east side of the island bore the 
brunt of the disaster — for disaster it was — ^houses and buildings were 
levelled to the ground, and plantations were torn up by the roots. 
Port Maria was one of the places which suffered worst; my photo- 
graphs may therefore be historical, for I took them three or four 
months before that hurricane. 

Another place which suffered severely in that hurricano is Port 
Antonio, at the north-east comer of the island. Port Antonio is one 
of the finest natural harbours of Jamaica, and it is geographically in 
the most advantageous position for shipping to and from the 
American continent, consequently Port Antonio monopolises almost 
the whole of the American shipping trade, passengers, produce, and 
goods. We saw a large American hotel ; here are the headquarters 
of the American Fruit Company; here they reckon in dollars; and 
here are American stores; so the whole town may be said to be 
Americanised. An American gentleman whom I met remarke4 to 
me, "I have visited most parts of the world, but I do not know any 
place m6re beautiful than the arrival at Jamaica, Port Antonio, with 
the sapphire sea below your ship, the tropical vegetation coming 
right down to the shore, the beautiful constellations above you, is 
vurry beautiful." Speaking of the happy-go-lucky characteristics of 
^e Jamaica black people, the same American gentleman told me 



132 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

that he had a«ked an old negro, who was sitting doing nothing, '' Well, 
how do you pass the time!" "1 do not," he replied; "the time 
passes me ! " 

We saw a group of people getting in their cacao harvest. 
Do not oonfoimd this with the large cocoarnuts, which yield such 
refreshing water or milk, and which g^ow on those lofty palm trees; 
no, these are pods, whi(^ contain the seeds known to you, probably, 
aa cacao-nibs. Tliese seeds, or nibs, are dried in the sun, and go to 
make the cocoa, or chocolate, which you drink. So this is another 
of Jamaica's products! 

Perhaps the fineet and most beautiful of the Jamaican rivers is 
the Kio Cobre. It has been compared to a Scotch salmon river, but 
the feathery bamboos on its bank show that it is tropical. IHie Rio 
Cobre enters a line gorge, called Bog Walk. '^ A limestone mountain 
seems to have been split in twain, the river sides, precipitous aa can 
be, having in the lapse of ages become clothed with foliage of every 
variety of form, and grandeur, and tint." So writes Sir Sibbakl 
Scott, of Bog Walk. But the river is here put to an utilitarian pur- 
pose, for at the foot of that steep mountain side a low dam turns a 
large portion of the river into a line of pipes, which take the water 
to a power-house, where, by means of turbines, it operates electrical 
machinery, which, in turn, generates the current for working the 
electric trams at Kingston, twenty-two miles away. When I tell you 
that this pipe-line is one mile and an eighth long, that it is eight feet 
in diameter, and made of quarter-inch steel plate, you will realise that 
it is a steel tunnel, through which a man can walk upright, and you 
can try to imagine the prodigious quantity of water which passes 
through this pii>e every twenty-four hours. Ilie water, having 
operated the turbines, is returned by the great curved pipe to the 
river again, and does not seem one whit the worse for the duty 
required of it. To those of you who are technically inclined it may 
be interesting to know that the current from this power-house is 
taken the twenty-two miles to tlie transforming station at Kingston, 
at a pressure of 15,000 volts, by bare wires, supported on steel pol^ 
planted on concrete. We have here got to a point considerably below 
Bog Walk, and near to Spanish Town, where the Rio Cobre is again 
made to do duty, by being laid under contribution for irrigation 
purposes, consequently it loses the rapid rushing of the Bog Walk 
gorge, and a-ssumes a nmch more placid demeanour as it meandem 
gently under the tall palm-trees. The smoothness of the water, and 
the shade from the heat of the tropic sun, invite us to get into the 
punt waiting at the bank, and drift lazily down the stream for a 
while, and revel in the glorious wealth of vegetation and foliage which 
adorns the baiiks. As the punt bears us dreamily along, on our 
lotus-like sail, we notice the great affection which the cocoa-nut palm 
has for the water. Its roots are ven- often half in the land and half 
in the water, and it does not seem to matter much whether the water 
is fresh or salt, for I have often seen them grow by the sea in like 
manner. The tree had grown for some length into the water 
before it turned upwards into the light and air. Let us now leave 
the river, and enter Spanish Town, the former capital of the 
Spaniards. 



Jamaica^ the Crown of our West Indian Possessions. 133 

Perhaps the most striking object in Spanish Town to-day is the 
Rodney Temple, as it is called. It was erected in honour of the 
British Adnairal, Lord Rodney, and his great victory over the French 
Fleet, off iJomemoa, on the 12th of April, 1782. *^The object of the 
French Admiral, Count de Grasse, was to capture Jamaica, and drive 
the English out of the West Indies. Rodney sailed from St. Lucia 
to intercept the French. In number of ships the fleets were equal, 
but in size, in armament, and in number of men the French were 
inunenselj super^ior. Rodney led in penson on his flagship, the 
"Formidable." All day long the cannon roared, and one by one the 
French ships struck their flags or sank. The killed were reckoned 
at 14,000. At length, after a desperate fight, De Grasse gave up 
hia sword to Rodney on the quarter-deck of the " Formidable.'* 
Thus, on that memorable day, were both Jamaica and the British 
Empire saved! Rodney received a peerage, and is naturally 
regarded as the great hero of Jamaica. 

The temple consists of a semi-circular colonnade, with a central 
cupola, within which is a marble statue of Rodney, executed by John 
Bacon, at a cost of £3,000. 

Another interesting building is the quaint Cathedral Church. 
This church is believed to stand on the foundations of 
the Spanish Church of the Red Cross, which was destroyed 
by Cromwell's Puritan soldiers, when the town was cap- 
tured by Venables, in May, 1655. The interior of this quaint and 
interesting Cathedral Church — and it is nearly 200 years old — is 
characterised by great simplicity and absence of superfluous orna- 
mentation. In plan the church is in the form of a Latin 
cross. The side chapels, or aisles, are occupied by several interesting 
monuments. One of them is the beautiful and pathetic monument 
to the memory of Elizabeth Mary, the Countess of James Earl of 
Elgin and Kincardine, who was Governor of Jamaica sixty years ago. 
This poor lady was married when she was twenty years of age; the 
following year she came to Jamaica with her husband, when he took 
up the Governorship. She only occupied her exalted position for a 
year and two months, for she died the next year, on the 7th June, 
1843, a girl still, of only twenty-two. This beautiful monument 
was erected by the Jamaican Legislature as an expression of the public 
regard for her virtue and talents. 

No doubt you will all have read in your younger days that book 
of adventure called "Tom Cringle's Log," and how Tom describes a 
ceiba, or silk-ootton tree, of great size, with a trunk twenty feet 
through of solid timber, overhanging this road from Spanish Town 
to Kingston, and into the branches of which he climbed in order to 
enjoy the luxury of a real Havanna cigar without interruption. We 
saw Tom Cringle's tree, and a splendid tree it was. (See Fig. 6.) 
The fruit contains a soft, silky fibre, hence the name. The timber 
is of no value, except that, as we have seen, canoes are shaped out 
of it. The natives believe that these great silk-cotton trees are 
occupied by the Jumbi, or evil spirits, and that it is most unlucky 
to injure, or throw «tones at, one of these trees. 

An afternoon's drive brings us from Spanish Town back to 



134 The Journal of the MomcheBter Oeagraphical Society. 

Kingston, and to our ship homeward bound, and also in time to see 
a glorious tropical sunset. 

Tou remember that we have been driving all this time in the 
three-horse van, which we chartered at Mandeville, and we have now 
travelled in it upwards of 350 miles. 

Let me conclude by quoting a few lines as given by Sir Sibbald 
Scott: — 

Beautiful island! where the green 

Which nature wears was never seen 

'Neath zone of Europe; where the hue 

Of sea and heaven is such a blue 

Aa England dreams not; where the night 

Is all irradiate witih the light 

Of stars lik* moons, which, hung on high. 

Breathe and quiver in the sky. 

Each its silver haze divine 

Flinging in a radiant line. 

O'er gorgeous flower and mighty tree 

On the soft and shadowy sea! 

Beautiful island! brief the time 

I dwelt beneatih your awful clime; 

Yet oft I see in noon-day dream 

Tour glorious stars with lunar beam; 

And oft before my sight arise 

Your sky-like seas, your sea-like skies; 

Your green bananas' giant leaves; 

Your golden canes in arrowy sheaves; 

Your palms which never die, but stand 

Immortal sea-marks on the strand, — 

Their feathery tufts, like plumage rare; 

Their stems so high, so strange and fair! 

Yea! while the breeze of England now 

Flings rose-scents on my aching brow, 

I think a moment I inhale 

Again the breath of tropic gale. 



Tlie Rhine and its Legends. 135 



THE RHINE AND ITS LEGENDS. 

By A. C. Magian, M.D., F.B.G.S. 

[Addressed to the Society in the Geographical HalU on Tuesday, October 
30th, 1906, at 7-30 p.m.] 

N.B. — ^In this report the legends are omitted. 

THERE is to everyone, I think, sometliing interesting and romantic 
about this mighty river of Central Europe. And we all know 
that even before the Middle Ages, before William the Conqueror came 
to England, the Rhine was the chief channel for the interchange of 
goods between Germany and Britain. The shipping trade of the 
Rhine was of the greatest importance when the Romans held power, 
and before this period, and, as far back as history can take us, the 
Rhine was one of the great rivers of the world. The history of the 
Rhine is the history of Europe. The Romans and the Franks guarded 
this great waterway and levied tolls on all ships using it. Later, 
princes, barons, and knights held their sway over portions of its 
course, and by imposing at the point of the sword very heavy taxes 
upon the merchants and traders accumulated vast wealth. 

The total length of the river is, roughly, 960 miles. It rises in 
Switzerland by the confluence of the Vorder and Hinter Rhein. 
Immediately below this the Rhine is navigable for small craft, but it 
is, generally speaking, not of much importance until Basle is reached. 
Here it turns directly north and flows through the beautiful Valley of 
the Rhine — the so-called '* Garden of Germany." Then at Mayence 
the River Main joins it, and the streams flow north-west and west 
as far as Bonn. This portion is surrounded by especially delightful 
scenery. The swiftJy-flowing, winding river is guarded on either 
side by rocky crags and vinerclad hills; mighty fortresses and ruined 
castles tell more plainly than words can describe or pictures paint of 
the glories of the bygone ages and of the might of the Fatherland 
to-day. Great cities and quiet hamlets join hands, as it were, along 
its banks, to show how all-important is this famous waterway to the 
Empire. And on the bosom of the river itself are passing and 
re-passing pleasure steamer and straining tug, light yacht and heavily- 
laden cargo boat, swift launch and labouring ferry, great drifting 
rafts and dainty shallops — commerce and pleasure, industry and idle- 
ness — ^the mysteries of life and love. Although this is th& deepest and 
widest part of the river, navigation has to be conducted with care, 
for shifting sandbanks, half-concealed islands, and submerged rocks 
would bring speedy disaster to the incompetent or the stranger. 

From Bonn to Cologne the beautiful scenery continues, and then 
we pass the German frontier and find that the ever-broadening stream 
is now alone of interest to the tourist. The country becomes flat and 
uninteresting, and finally the great river splits up into a number of 
small streams, and, as the Waal, Tssel, Leek, and Vecht, pours itself 
into the deep waters of the North Sea. 



136 The Journal of the Manchester Qeographical Society. 

So much then, for the course of the river. In addition, one 
must remember that the Rhine is connected by canals with Central 
and Southern France, and also with the baain of the Danube and the 
Mediterranean. Since the year 1870 the river has been free to all, 
whilst in the eighteenth century the river dues amounted to no leas 
than £200,000 annually. 

Leaving Manchester in the afternoon, we take train to Harwich, 
and there in the evening board the waiting steamer for Rotterdam, 
where we arrive in the early morning. 

Rotterdam is the chief port of the whole Rhine basin, and forma 
the true mouth of the Rhine. It has some five or six thousand 
merchant ships touching there, two-thirds of which sail under the 
British flag. Here waa born the great and witty scholar, Gerard 
Gerand, commonly known as Erasnms. Up the middle of each street 
runs a capital canal. Canals in Holland are as numerous as streets 
in England. The rivers are joined to each other by nature and by 
canals ; canals are joined by otlier canals and by ditches. The wind- 
mills, so plentifully scattered along the sides of the rivers and canals, 
are used for wood-sawing, draining land, grinding corn, bruising oil 
seeds, mashing paper pulp, and cleaning flax. 

Holland is a very cold country, hence the rivers and canals freeze 
readily in winter and skating is more common than walking in this 
season. Cows may frequently be seen in the fields wearing over- 
coats. Holland is steadily swept over by strong winds, hence it is 
not as unhealthy as such a low-lying country would otherwise be. 
The exhalations from the marshes and pools are blown away and 
valuable power is given to the windmills. 

Dordrecht, about twelve miles from Rotterdam, is an example of 
an old Dutch town. To this place large rafts of wood are floated all 
the way from Switzerland and various parts of Grermany. Sawmills, 
shipbuilding yards, and factories are seen on every side. Here 
was held the famous synod which condemned the doctrines of 
Arminius (1618-19), and here was arranged the first National Assembly 
aft-er the expulsion of the Spaniards (1572). Here also was born, m 
1795, the famous French romantic painter, Ary Scheffer. Scheffer 
exhibited in the Salon in Amsterdam when only twelve years of ago. 
He worked under Guerin in Paris, and painted " La veuve du soldat," 
" La soeur de Charite," *' Faust," " Mignon," *' Paolo et Francesca," 
''Dante et Beatrice," ** Le Christ Consolateur," and others. Ary 
Scheflfer has been called the poet-painter on account of the pensive, 
mystic feeling which dominates his work. A statue to his memory 
was erected in Dordrecht in 1862. 

From Dordrecht to Goch, and so on to Wesel-on-the-Rhine, and 
then without a break to Dlisseldorf. We are now passing through 
tlie coalfields of Prussia, through the Lancashire of the German 
Empire, where town joins town and a veritable network of railways 
cover the country. We have passed Crefeld, Essen, Elberfeld, and 
Barmen. 

Dlisseldorf -on-the-Rhine is the centre of the industrial and populous 
part of Rheinish Prussia that we have just referred to. Cotton, silk, 
woollen, and hardware are its chief manufactures. This ancient city, 
formerly a little riverside village, was made famous by its Elector, 



The Rhine avd its Legends. 137 

Wilhelm (whose statue stands in the Market Place), about the year 
1700. He extended the city and founded the art reputation of Dussel- 
dorf. He gathered around him famous artists; he bought costly 
pictures lavishly, and employed skilled artists to copy for him 
all the celebrated statues, groups, and reliefs which were known in 
Italy. His successors, unfortunately, took no interest in the collec- 
tion, and eventually during the complicated affairs of war it fell into 
the hands of France, and, last of all, was given back again to Germany, 
but not to Diisseldorf. It was placed in the Pinakothek at Munich ! By 
the treaty of November 23rd, 1870, the magnificent creation of Jan 
Wellem — the backbone of Dlisseldorf's School of Art — ^was for ever 
given to Munich. As compensation, a sum of money for the purpose 
of constructing an Art Hall (Kunsthalle) in Diisseldorf was granted 
by the State. Diisseldorf is noted for the excellence of its music and 
theatre as well as art. Immerman, Mendelssohn, Schumann, were all 
local men of fame. Heine was born here. The Apollo theater, in the 
Konigsallee, is the largest and most beautiful theatre in Germany, 
and will accommodate 3,000 people. Beautiful parks, splendid 
museums, magnificent monuments, and interesting relics make the 
city of Diisseldorf one of the most famous in Germany. 

And 'now we come to the grand old city of Cologne. Cologne — or 
Koln, as it should be called — is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 
twenty-four miles south of Diisseldorf. It is, first of all, a strongly- 
fortified town, and also one of the first commercial centres of the 
Empire. It is enclosed in a ring of twenty-two forts, and is the 
capital of the Rhineland province. 

The interesting sights of the town are : (1) The renowned 
Cathedral, or Dom Kirche. (2) Church of St. Peter, which contains 
Rubens' " Crucifixion of St. Peter." (3) Church of St. Ursula, where 
are to be found the bones of 11,000 virgins who were massacred by 
the Huns on refusing to break their vows of chastity. (4) Church of 
the Minorities, with the tomb of Duns Scotus, one of the greatest of 
schoolmen. He died of apoplexy here in 1308. He taught first at 
Oxford, then at Paris, and finally founded a University in Cologne. 
(5) Church of St. Marie-im-Capitol, the oldest church in Koln, built 
in the eleventh century, and which owes its name to the story that 
the old Roman Capitol once stood there. The oldest part of the 
church dates from 696. (6) The beautiful Apostel-Kirche, a pure 
Romanesque building of striking appearance. 

Splendid gardens and promenades are to be found outside the old 
walls. 

Cologne is world-famous for its cloth industries, and for its manu- 
facture of " Eau^e-Cologne," of which nearly 2,000,000 bottles are 
exported yearly. There are more than twenty-four large factories 
devoted to the production of the well-known scent. 

The population of Cologne is now about 460,000, its commerce 
is most thriving, and it is the central point of all the industries of 
the Rhine. 

The city of Cologne was well-known long before the birth of 
Christ. It was raised to the dignity of a Roman colony in the year 
50. The town even to-day abounds with Roman remains, which are 
constantly being discovered. 



138 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

Cologne became more famous than ever when, in 1164, the remains 
of the *' Three Magi " were deposited in the Cathedral. 

In 1600 the town began to decline in prosperity, owing to the 
discovery of America (1492), and in 1800 one-third of the people were 
on the verge of starvation, living almost like cattle. 

The French, during their invasion of 1794 estimated the entire 
value of the town, with its 150 churches and 8,000 houses, as exactly 
X1,000,000 sterling. They used its churches for stables, and the 
majority of the houses were considered unfit for human habitation, 
being simply filthy dens. In 1880 the mighty ramparts of the city 
were taken down and the town allowed to expand itself. 

Leaving Cologne by steamer, we arrive, after 2 J hours' pleasant 
sailing, in view of the old University town of Bonn. We pass under 
a fine bridge, the central span of which is 610 ft. wide — ^the seoond 
largest span of any bridge in Europe. 

On the opposite bank to that on which Bonn is built is 
the little town of Beul, against whose inhabitants the people 
of Bonn have had in past times much hatred on account of their 
close-fisted conduct at the time of the construction of the bridge, 
which connects the two places over the river. 

Bonn possesses a fine cathedral with five towers, dedicated to 
St. Martin. The central tower is 310 ft. high, and in front of the 
organ is a statue of St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, the Roman 
Emperor, and a woman of great power in the Christian Church of 
Europe. 

Bonn has of late become a favourite resort for English people. 
The streets and public buildings are in general very attractive and 
handsome, and, although an ancient town, it has a very modem 
appearance. There is a splendid University, beautifully situated, 
with 1,300 students and 140 professors. The late Prince Consort 
studied here for some time. In a house — No. 7, Rheingasse — ^the 
great composer-musician, Beethoven, • was .born, and in the Munster 
Platz is a bronze statue erected to his memory. This was unveiled 
in the presence of Queen Victoria in 1845. 

Leaving Bonn, we proceed south again' to visit Konigswinter and 
the Siebengebirge (Seven Mountains) with the Drachenfels. We may 
travel by train to save time, or go by steamer if we prefer. Formerly, 
before the bridge across the river was built, a ferry was used to 
transport the whole train and passengers to Beul on the opposite 
bank. Now this method of crossing the river has naturally gone 
out of use. The Rhine at Bonn is wider by 100 yards than at Cologne, 
and measures about 532 yards across — nearly one-third of a mile. 

Just a word about the river steamers. The first steamboat which 
sailed the Rhine was an English one in 1816. Ten years later a 
Grerman firm started a regular service of boats between Cologne and 
Mainz. Other companies joined, and to-day the Koln-Dusseldorfer 
Rhein Danipfschiffarht (Cologne-Dusseldorf Rhine Steamship Com- 
pany) has more than thirty first-class steamers in full use on 
the river. The large double-deck steamers carry 1,500 passengers 
each, are 270 ft. long, 55 ft. across the paddle boxes, and 
are the largest, fastest, and finest saloon river steamers in Europe. 
They carry nearly two million passengers yearly and 40,000 tons of 



The Rhine and its Legends. 139 

cargo. There is every accommodation for dining on board, and 
also every convenience as regards comfort. 

And now the Seven Mountains and the stony Drachenfels come 
into view. The Seven Mountains consist of various peaks and cones, 
one of which is known as the Drachenfels. At the summit towers the 
castle of Drachenfels, at the height of about 1,000 ft. 

" The cafitl«d cra^ of Drachenfels 

Frowne o'er the wide and winding Rhine, 
Whose breast of waters broadly swells 

Between the banks which bear the vine ; 
And hills all rich with bkussomed trees. 

And fields which promise corn and wine. 
And scattered cities crowning these. 

Whose far white walls along them shine. 
Have strew'd a scene which I would see 
With double joy wert thou with me." 

Facing the Drachenfels, on the opposite side of the river, is the 
ruin of Rolandseck, indicating the spot where the famous Knight 
Roland, nephew of the Frankish King, wooed and lost his bride. It 
was here also that the great Paladin died. 

And now to Andernach. This is a quaint little town, very ancient 
and picturesque. Formerly the Antunnacum of the Romans, one of 
the fifty forte of Drusus the great general who subjugated all the 
leading German tribes and, at tiie expense of fearful bloodshed, estab- 
lished the supremacy of Rome. The town was in old days the 
residence of the Merovingian kings. There is a fine old church, with 
four towers, built in 1206. An ancient watch tower still stands 
prominently by the riverside, and the city is still surrounded by 
ancient walls and ramparts. 

Neuwied, with its Moravian commune, is passed, and then comes 
Coblentz, a famous city about halfway between CJologne and Mainz, 
and one of the most important military strongholds in Germany. 
The beautiful Rhine promenade is probably the finest in Germany. 
The Rhine province monument to Kaiser Wilhelm on the Deutches 
Eck was unveiled in 1897. It stands on a broad base supported by 
twenty granite pillars, each 33 ft. high. The statue is 46 ft. high, 
and is cast in copper. The whole is enclosed in a pergola 124 ft. long, 
and on the face of the monument is engi-aved : " Nimmer wird das 
Ileich zerstoret wenn ihr einig seid und treu " (Never shall the Empire 
perish if ye remain true and uniteil). It cost ^100,000. Among 
the various churches in the town, one of the most interesting 
is the ancient. Church of the Jesuits. The town is irregularly built, 
but the newer parts are well laid out with broad, clean streets and 
fine buildings. 

The river may be crossed by the boat bridge or the newer stone 
and iron one. On the opposite side lies the famous fortress of 
Ehrenbreitstein, often called the Gibraltar of the Rhine. The fortress 
is built on the solid rock, inaccessible on three sides, and nearly 
400 ft. above the river. Even as far back as the fifteenth century it 
was of such importance that the commander had to swear allegiance 
to the Emperor as well as to the local ruler. In 636 it was given to 
the Archbishop of Treves by the King of the Franks. To-day there is 



140 The Journal of the Manchester Oeojfraphical Society. 

a triple line of defences mounted with 400 formidable guns. On the 
top of the rock is a parade-ground and water tanks holding a water 
supply sufficient for three years. The French conquered it by famine 
in 1799 and blew it up in 1801. To-day it is one of the strongest 
fortresses in the world. It is a marvel of engineering skill. 

From CJoblenta we go to Capellen and visit the magnificent castle 
of Stolzwifels. Formerly the residence of the Archbishop of Treves, 
this famous castle is now a Royal residence. Built in 1242, it was 
destroyed by the French in 1689, given to the German Crown Prince 
in 1833, renovated at a cost of £50,000, and visited by Queen Victoria, 
as guest of the German Emperor, only a few years ago. 

Opposite Capellen lies the old town of Oberlahnstein, surrounded 
by walls, towers, and fosses — the remains of the glories of long ago. 
Close to Oberlahnstein, on the other side of the River Lahn, is the 
Castle of Lahneck, where in the old daya the last of the Knights 
Templars fought for their lives, shouting their old war-cry : ** Sans 
peur et sans reproche 1 " Of such castles it ia well said — 

" Th€v stand as stands a lofty mind. 

Worn but unstooping to the baser crowd. 
All tenantless save to the crann^ing wind. 

Or holding dark communion with the cloud. 
There was a day when they were younff and jprond. 

Banner on high, and battles paseed below .' 
But thev who fouj^ht are in a bloody 6hix)ud, 

And those which waved are shredless dust ere now. 

And the bleak battl^ements shall bear no future blow." 

We pass on, pausing at Braubach to view the fine old Castle of 
Marksburg — the sole survivor of the wars of the Middle Ages — and 
again at Boppard to learn the legend of the Convent of Marienburg. 

Next we see the picturesque ruins of the castles of Sterrenburg 
and Liebenstein, separated by a stout defensive wall. The legendis 
of the twin brethren and their love for the fair Angela are vividly 
recalled to mind on viewing the old battlements as they frown ovier 
the silent river. 

And so on to St. Goar and St. Goarhausen, with the Castle of the 
Cat and the ruin of the Rheinfels — the famous fortress which witli- 
stood the combined forces of sixty Rhine cities for 15} months and 
was at last sold, after being blown up in 1791, for the paltry sum of 
£100. At St. Goar every stranger was forced to drink a goblet of 
wine to the memory of the great Karl, the Sovereign of England, the 
ruling prince, and the local club, or else be ducked in the river. 
History records no cases of the ducking process ! 

Soon after leaving St. (jioar we approach the celebrated rock 
known as the Lorelei, where sits, according to the legend, a golden- 
haired maiden who lures the unwary mariner to his doom by her 
glorious voice and ravishing beauty. 

" Subtlely -stealing, floating like incense 

Over the golden-lit, swift-flowing; Rhine, 
Come to the ears of the ill-fated mariner 
Strains £K> enchanting, thrilling the listener. 
Luring him, drawing* him, reckless of danger. 

On to the rocks where the cruel lights shine.*' 



The Rhine and its Legends. 141 

Our onward course brings us now to Caub and the Castle of 
Gutenfels, where Prince Richard of Cornwall, as a stranger knight, 
fought against the picked knights of Europe, and, as victor, wooed 
and won the beautiful Countes&f Guta, sister of Count Philip of 
Falkenstein. Of more recent date is the historic ''Pfalz," situate in 
the middle of the river and formerly a Royal residence. It was here 
in 1814 that Blucher and his army ctx)ssed the Rhine, and at Caub a 
magnificent statue has been erected to his memory. 

Bacarach next claims our attention, and here we see the ruined 
Chapel of St. Werner and the fine old Church of St. Peter. The 
chapel was erected in 1293, to the memory of a murdered Christian 
boy, whose body is said to have miraculously floated up stream and 
come ashore here. 

And now we are in the centre of the Rheingau — the celebrated 
wine district of the Empire. We pay a flying visit to Bingen — '' Fair 
Bingen-on-the-Rhine "' — and gaze from the shore at the little island 
in mid-stream, where stands the old " Mouse Tower," in which the 
cruel Bishop Hatto is said to have been eaten alive by a sw^arm of 
mice — torn to pieces and devoured piecemeal by the ravenous animals, 
as a judgment from Heaven for his wickedness. In the distance stands 
out clearly from the opposite shore the enormous National Monument 
of Germany, which took nine years to build, and which was erected 
'* to commemorate the victorious and unanimous rising of the German 
people and the restoration of the German Empire in 1870-71." 

Ajboard ship again and on to Mayence, the golden city of the Rhine, 
founded by Drusus thirty-eight years before the birth of Christ, and 
fanoous throughout the ages for freedom and song. Here it was that 
Rhenish cities established their independence, that Gutenberg first 
put together type for printing books, and that the great trade of the 
Rheingau originated. The name '* Golden Mainz " was given to it 
ages ago on account of its prosperity. 

Close to Mayence is Wiesbaden, the beautiful and fashionable 
*' city of millionaires." It has become famous by reason of its mineral 
springs and baths, some twenty-two of which are to be found in 
different parts of the town. More than 60,000 visitors come here 
annually. It is a remarkably beautiful place, and full of magnificent 
buildings. The Greek Church is a most costly and imposing edifice, 
built on the hillside, entirely of marble, and decorated with gold and 
precious stones. It was erected by the Duke of Nassau, as a mauso- 
leum for his girl-wife, Elizabeth, who died here. The Kursaal, Trink- 
halle, and other municipal buildings are most interesting. 

Forty miles south-east of Mayence lies the old-world city of Worms. 
Known to tfie ancient Romans, it was destroyed by Attila and rebuilt 
by Lodwig. It has many times been the seat of pitched battles, but 
is perhaps most interesting through its connection with Martin Luther. 
A monument to the reformer is one of tlie sights of the town. 

And now to dear old Heidelberg, with its famous castle and its 
equally famous University. The castle was for 500 years a Royal 
residence. In one of its cellars rests an enormous wine cask, the 
'* Heidelberg tun," which, according to Mark Twain, ** is as big as a 
cottage, and by tradition contains either 1,800,000 bottles or 
1,800,000 million barrels — one of these statements is a mistake and 



142 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

the other a lie!'' The Univeraity waa founded 550 years ago, and 
haa over 1,000 Btudenis. The etudenta' '* duelling inn " is a particu- 
larly interesting establishment, and one always viaited by strangers. 

Still onward, and we glide slowly past Basle, and Rheinf elden and 
Sackingen are reached by train. The Falls of SchafQiausen next 
delight the eye and soothe the wanderer's travel-weary mind, and 
here he may well stop, to rest for a moment and to bid the grand 
old river a lingering good-bye. 

" O Rhine, well may the German heart glow proudly at thy n&iue. 
Well may the German love to tell the stories ot thy fame. 
To paint thy ancient castles and to praise the glorious vine 
That wins ita blocm and fraerance on those sunny banks of thiue 
Here 'mid thy fairest, gentler scenes, thy vales of velvet green. 
With little hamlets gleaming like loose pearU that lie between ; 
With spires and convents rising from a purple line of hiUs, 
With tne sound of tinkling vespers and of tiny trickling rill><, 
Where but in Rhineland can we find a counterpart of these? " 

"Adieu to thee, fair Rhine! How long delighted 
The stranger fain would linger on his way. 
Adieu to thee again, adieu!" 



NEW MAP. 

Nhw Orooraphical Map op Asia. Compiled under the direction of 
H. J. Mackinder, M.A. Scale, 1/8,721,500, or 137*6 miles to 
an inch. In four sheets, 58 by 50 inches. London: E. 
Stanford 1906. 

The map of Asia, by E. Stanford, contains many new and good features, 
and is a further illustration of the advance taking place in the method of 
representing the physical features of a country. 

The different heights of the land above sea level are represented by 
varying shades of brown, while the depths of oceans and seas are shown in 
shades of blue. These shades stand out in great contrast, and make it 
possible to compare the great irregularities of heights and depths with 
interest and success. With a brief consideration of the shadings and the 
values they represent, a very vivid impression of the general physical 
features of the continent is obtained. 

The new features introduced and explained, on a leaflet issued with 
the map, will increase its usefulness from a teaching point of view. It is a 
good map, clear, bold and attractive, and worthy a place in any school. 

H. C. M. 



Con^eepondence. 143 



CORRESPONDENCE. 



AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 

Sm, — ^The importance of language in relation to political and social 
aspects of the native question in Africa seems liable to be overlooked. 
The possibility of large groups of tribes, hitherto distinct and fmntually 
antagonistic, becoming rapidly able and eager to understand each other 
in some common form of speech has apparently to be taken into account. 
Twenty-six years' contact with Swahui and various dialects of Eastern 
and Central Africa points so far to the conclusion that there is a 
remarkable degree of similarity, amounting in many important respects 
to substantial identity, in the grammatical structure of language over 
the whole vast area occupied by the Bantu races of Africa, from the 
Soudan to the Cape. And the stock of words com>nu>n to all Bantu tribes, 
when recognised under their various dialectic disguises, will probably 
prove very considerable. 

The officials, missionaries, traders, settlers, and travellers of various 
nationalities who are qualified to give help in testing this conclusion by 
personal and first-hand study of a Bantu dialect are naturally difficult to 
reach — scattered in remote and often isolated spheres of work. It is, 
therefore, perhaps justifiable to ask publicity for the request, that persons 
so qualifiea and willing to accept and reply to a brief communication on 
the subject would send me their addresses at Fort Jameson, North-Eastern 
Bhodesia. 

I should be grateful if foreign journals and local papers in Africa, 
general and official, would assist by calling attention to my invitation. 

I am, etc., 

(Signed), A. C. Madan, 

Student of Christ Church, Oxford. 

c/o The British South African Co., 

Fort Jameson, North-Eastern Bhodesia. 

12th July, 1906. 



Government University, Tai Yuan Fu, Shansi, 

North China, August 30th, 1906. 

Mt Dear Mb. Sowebbtjtts, — I am very sorry to have to say that our 
Principal, Dr. Moir Duncan, has just died, at the early age of forty-five. 
He was a man of wonderful energy, and the way he could work from early 
morning to late at night often excited our wonder and admiration. 

Alas! he was really overworking himself, and the breakdown when it 
came was of such a nature as to admit of no hope of recovery. He is buried 
on a mountain top about thirty miles away, at a place where he had gone 
to try and recuperate. I have paid a very short visit to Wu Tai Shan, 
and once more found it very interesting, l^e fair was just over, and most 
of the Mongol horse dealers had returned home; but there were a good 
number of pilgrims, several of whom had come from Tibet. 

According to the chief priest of the temple at which we stayed, the 
first temple was built there in the Chou Dynasty by some Indian pilgrims, 
who Tf^ere carrying the ashes of some famous Buddhistic saint whom he 
called Shih Chia Foa Tie. 



144 Th$ Journal of the Momckester Geographical Society. 

Foa Tie is a title applied to Buddha, so I expect Shih Chia was one 
of his disciples. 

The district magistrate was paying a visit to the place, and stayed in 
the same temple. He was Tery kind to ns, and seemed to be an intelligent 
man when not under the influence of opium; but he seemed to occupy 
about half of the time he ought to have given to business in smoking. He 
did not disguise his failing, and his pipes and lamp were to be seen in hia 
guest-room. 

I hope to send you a communication of some kind before long, and 
hope I may find something that will interest you. 

Although it is rather early to mention it, yet I should be glad if you 
would once more allow me to present the cake at the Children s Party. 

Up to the present over 80 of our students have been granted the 
Chii Jen or M.A. degree by the Peking authorities, and the district is 
placarded with congratulations to the students from admiring friends. 

We hope to start the advanced courses with about 80 men, and when 
they have finished they will have had seven years with us. 

With best wishes to Mrs. Sowerbutts and all the friends of the Society, 

I remain, yours very truly, 

R. W. Swallow. 



C.M.S. Hoima, Uganda Protectorate, 

East Africa, December 31st, 1905. 

Dear Sib, — I am most grateful to your Committee for letting me see 
Mr. Hill's letter to the Manchester Guardian on the supposed famine in 
Uganda. 

I must say it was the very first intimation I have had of Mr. Hill's 
visit or the famine. I am at a complete loss to understand how Mr. Hill 
could have formed such an idea, for the rainfall has been the best and 
most regular that the country has enjoyed for many years; the soil every- 
where is richly productive, and with the least amount of labour any 
peasant can provide himself and his family with food. 

The universal custom is for the natives along the main roads to plead 
hunger so as to excuse the small supply produced, and as much as possible 
to save their gardens from the numerous passing caravans. For the last 
fourteen years itinerating through the Kingdom of Uganda and other 
parts of the Protectorate, I have become familiar with the expression 
quoted by Mr. Hill, " Hunger has fallen down," and I venture to express 
an opinion, that if Mr. Hill had visited the home of any one of these 
" noontide ghosts " he would have seen gardens of plantains, sweet 
potatoes, Indian com, millet, and a herd of goats and sheep. I have 
circumstantial evidence to prove that food is now so plentiful in Toro that 
it commands practically no market value. 

The Ankole people live chiefly on the produce of their thousands of 
cattle, and only within recent years, under Government pressure, have 
they commenced to cultivate the soil to any extent, hence food for passing 
caravans is sometimes scarce; but if due notice is given to the district 
chief he is able to procure food from the distant gardens, where the 
pressure is not so great as that which falls on the few gardens near the 
main road. 

I feel sure that if Mr. Hill had taken the Missionaries or the Govern- 
ment Officials into his confldence they would have put his mind at rest 
with regard to the true condition of things. 

Believe me, dear sir. 

Very sincerely yours, 

Abthub B. Fishsb. 

P.S. — I heartily congratulate the Committee on the opening of their 
new premises, and the splendid session programime. 



Proceedings. 145 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. 

July 1st to Dbcembeb SIst, 1906. 



The meetings are held in the Geographical Hall, unless otherwise stated. 



The 728th Meeting of the Society was held at Marple, on Saturday, 
July 7th, 1906. 

The members were met at Marple Station by Mr. Joel Wainwbight, 
J.F., and conducted by him past Samuel Oldknow's Market Place (of 
which he gave an interesting account), along some of Oldknow's roads, 
past the house in which Samuel Oldknow lived and died, and through the 
charming garden adjoining the lake, which has recently been opened for 
boating. The prospect from the pavilion connected with the lake is 
charming, and on a clear day Werneth Low may be seen in the distance. 
Mr. Wainwright afterwards led the party through Marple Bridge to his 
delightful residence, " Finchwood,'' on the hillside. The host and the 
ladies of the house entertained the party to tea. After full justice had 
been done to the good things provided, Mr. J. Howard Reed moved, and 
Mr. E. ScHOFiELD, J.P., seconded, a resolution that the hearty thanks of 
those present be tendered to Mr. Wainwright and his ladies for their 
kindness. Mr. N. Bbadlet, J.P., supported the resolution and put it to 
the meeting, when it was carried unanimously and with acclamation. Mr. 
Wainwright, in a few choice words, responded to the resolution. 

In the garden of Finch wood, after tea, Mr. Reed kindly gave an account 
of the proceedings of the Conference of Delegates of the British Association 
for the Advancement of Science, held in London last October, at which he 
represented the Society. 

Mr. Reed spoke as follows: — 

A few days ago I received a letter from Mr. Joel Wainwright, J.P., 
dated July 1st, 1906, in whieh he said : " I do wish you could give a little 
Geographical talk on some of your favourite subjects next Saturday after- 
noon." It occurred to me that I could not do better, in response to this 
request, than give a short report of the Conference of Delegates which I 
attended on behalf of the Society, and which was held in London, at 
Burlington House, on October 30th and 31st, 1905, and recount some of 
my doings on that occason. I fear it will be difficult to do more than refer 
very briefly to the proceedings in the time which your patience will allow to 
me on this beautiful summer evening, and in the midst of these lovely and 
hospitable surroundings. The two days' conference was presided over by 
A. Smith Woodward, Esq., F.R.S., the Chairman of the Corresponding 
Societies Committee, and he opened the proceedings by a most suggestive 
address. During the two days valuable and instructive papers were read 
on ""Hie Preservation of our Native Plants," by Professor G. S. Boulger; 
" The Law of Treasure Trove," by Dr. W. Martin ; and " The Question of 
D 



146 The Journal of the Manchetter Geographical Society. 

Copyright as Affecting Scientific Societios," by Mr. M. Walton Brown. 
Useful and interesting discussione followed the reading of each of these papers. 
For further particulars of these papers I must leier yon to the Annual Report 
of the British Association. On the afternoon of the first day of the Con< 
ference the delegates visited, by invitation, the Museum of the Royal 
College of Surgeons. This was a most interesting and well-spent afternoon. 
Our party was conducted through the Museum by the Curator, Professor 
Stewart, who drew attention to some of the more interesting treasures, and 
in racy terms told us many interesting facts with regard to them. Among the 
large collection of skeletons possessed by the Museum were seen those of 
the notorious Jonathan Wild, the Bow Street runner, and the celebrated 
Torkshire Giant. An unwrapped Egyptian mummy was shown us, and our 
gpiide explained that the material in which it was wrapped was found on 
examination to be very much finer than the finest cambric which could be 
purchaaed in a Bond Street draper's shop to-day, showing what a high 
condition of excellence of workmanship w.as applied in the manufacture of 
the fabrics of ancient times. It is impossible to refer in any detail to the 
wonderful things we were shown that afternoon, but all those present were 
agreed that the time had been extremely well spent, and that the exper- 
ience gained was of a most valuable and enlightening character. On the 
evening of the »ame day the delegates were, by special invitation, enter- 
tained to dinner at the Royal Societies Club. The hospitality of our hosts 
was of a liearty and even lavish description. We were regaled with good 
fare, and the company we met was of the most pleasing and enjoyable 
kind. I was well engaged during the dinner in discussing South Africa, 
and its geography, with a clergyman who had just returned from the sub- 
continent, where he had been with the British Association. Among other 
well-known geographers, I met that evening our good friends Dr. Scott 
Keltic, Dr. Mill, and our own member, Dr. Black, of Edinburgh. In th^ 
afternoon of the second day of the Conference the delegates attended the 
meeting of the General Committee of the British Ae;soeiation, of which each 
delegate is a member. Various business matters connected with the Associa- 
tion were discussed and settled at this meeting, most of which were of an 
interesting nature. Professor G. H. Darwin (now Sir George Darwin) 
President of the Association for the year, took the chair at this meeting, 
and I was specially struck with his very courteous and kindly bearing to 
all, by the charm of his manner and voice, and for the great ability and 
tact he displayed in dealing with matters which in less able hands might 
have led to some amount of friction. In the room where we were sitting was 
a large portrait of the great Charles Darwin, and I tried to discover some 
points of resemblance between the distinguished father and little lees 
distinguished son who was presiding over our deliberations. Besides the 
election of officers, the business of the afternoon included the fixing of the 
date of the 1906 meeting, to be held at York, and the arrangement of the 
place of meeting for the year 1907. In connection with the last-named matter 
strong deputations attended from the cities of Leicester and Dublin, each to 
press the special claims of the place they represented. Each deputation 
was specially representative of the civic, commercial, scientific, and 
educational life of the two cities, and showed at once that both Leicester 
and Dublin were thoroughly in earnest in the cordial invitations which 
they gave to the member? of the British Association. The 



Proceedings. 147 

deputations came into our meeting eeparatelj^ and several gentlemen spoke 
both strongly and eloquently in pzessing the claims of their respective 
cities. These speeches were evidently in most cases carefully prepared, 
and each, taken by itself seemed sufficient to prove that no other place wan 
for the moment worthy to be considered in preference to that from which 
the speaker hailed. After each deputation in turn had eloquently urged 
its claims and had withdrawn, the Committee discussed the matter, and 
in due course came to a decision. This was that in view of a previous disap> 
pointment on the part of Leicester, and for other reaaons, the Association 
should visit the EngUsh midland city in 1907, trusting that Dublin would 
renew its invitation at some future time, and would not feel hurt that 
Leicester was to have the preference on that occasion. The President left 
the room and visited each deputation, and explained the decision of the 
Committee, and there is little doubt that his natural urbanity and tact 
stood him in good stead when he had to explain matters to the men from 
Dublin. He returned to tell us that the Leceister deputation was delighted, 
while that from Dublin was disappointed, though they gracefully accepted 
the situation. It was whispered among the members of the Committee 
afterwards that some of the gentlemen from Dublin regarded the decision 
as " another injustice to Ireland.'' The close of the Committee meeting 
just referred to brought the Delegates Conference to a close. Tour delegate 
was pleased and proud to represent this Society at the two days' function, 
and trusts that this report, brief and incomplete though it be, may be 
considered acceptable, and a satisfactory reoord of his doings on your 
behalf at the meeting of the Corresponding Societies of the British 
Association of 1905. 

On the motion of Mr. Wainwaioht, a vote of thanks was unanimously 
passed to Mr. Reed for his very interesting report, and Mr. Beed's 
acknowledgment concluded the proceedings. 



The 729th Meeting of the Society was held at the Holiday Home, 
Great Hucklow, on Saturday, July 2l8t, 1906. 

The members arrived at Miller's Dale about 2 p.m., and drove, under 
the leadership of Mr. David A. Little, through Tideswell to Great 
Hucklow. The chief objects of interest passed on the way were pointed 
out. The Holiday Home at Great Hucklow was inspected with interest. 
A full account of the Home has already appeared in the Journal 
(Vol. XVII., page 194), so further description is unnecessary. The 
members ascended Hucklow Edge, which rises behind the village and is 
well wooded. A splendid view was obtained towards Tideswell in the 
south-west and Bretton Clough, etc., in the north-east. 

After tea, to which full justice had been done, Mr. W. Jackson 
moved, and Mr. A. Balmfobth seconded, a hearty vote of thanks to 
Mr. Little for his kindness and generosity, and it was carried with accla- 
mation. Mr. Little made a suitable response. 

Mr. Little led the party back to Tideswell, and a very interesting 
visit was made to the old Church, appropriately called "the Cathedral of 
the Peak," as it certainly seems too large for the village of Tideswell. 
Several hours could very well be occupied by a close inspection of the 
various ancient monuments and brasses to be found in the Church, with 



148 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

the asflBBtance of the fully illustrated guide compiled by the Bev. J. M. J. 
Fletcher^ vicar of the parish. 

The party arrived at the Central Station, Manchester, in good time, 
and thus happily concluded a very enjoyable visit. 



The 730th Meeting of th« Society was held on Tuesday, October 2nd, 
1906. 

Messrs. S. Oppenheim, J.P., D. A. Little, and J. Howard Seed, 
on behalf of the Council, received the members from 6 p.m., and an 
inspection of the Museum and Library constituted the first hour's pro- 
ceedings, light refreshments being served in the Members' Boom. 

At 7 p.m. Mr. Harbt Nuttall, M.P., took the chair, and the 
Minutes of the Meetings held on April 3rd, June 23rd, July 7th, and July 
2l8t were taken as read. 

Beference was made to the deaths of Messrs. B. I. Belisha, Adam 
Murray, and T. Woodhead, and a resolution was passed that the sympathy 
of the members should be conveyed to their relatives. Mention waa made 
of the fact that the first two were original members. 

Mr. Jas. Stefhbnson Beid, of Nicholls Hospital, gave a lecture oa 
"Scottish Scenery, Song, and Story," illustrated with a large number of 
beautiful slides. The proceedings were enlivened by appropriate songs, 
glees, etc., by the Waverley Quartette Party. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Beid for his interesting address, and 
to the Waverley Quartette Party for their assistance, was moved by 
Mr. Alderman Wm. Nobqtjot, seconded by Mr. J. Howard Bebd, and 
carried unanimously. 



The 731st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 9th, 
1906. In the chair^ Mr. J. Howabd Beed. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 2nd, 1906, were taken 
as read. 

The death of Mr. B. Maginnis was announced, and a resolution of 
sympathy with his relatives was passed. 

It was announced that the Society was represented at the funeral of 
the late Mr. Belisha by the Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S., and Mr. J. B. 
Dowdall. 

The Bev. P. A. Bees (Bhysfa) gave a lecture entitled " From Snow- 
fields to Vineyards." The address was illustrated with original slides. 

A vote of thanks was moved by Mr. F. Zimubrn, seconded by Mr. 
Geoboe Ginger, and passed unanimously. 



The 732nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 16th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair. Alderman Sir Bosdin Leech, J.P. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 9th were taken as read. 

Beplies to the resolutions of sympathy were read from the relatives 
of the late Mr. Murray and Mr. Maginnis. 

The election of the following members was announced: — 

Life: Mr. James Brierley, B.A., F.B.G.S. 



Proceedings. 149 

Obdinart: Miss Timperley, Mrs. Fairhurst^ Messrs. M. G. Hering, 
Harry Siegler, Fred. A. Jones, Edwin B. Boberts, and C. McDongall 
Smitli. 

Assogiatb: Miss G. A. Stott. 

It was announced that a large number of presentations bad been 
received, including the " Climatological Atlas of India," from His 
Majesty's Secretary of State for India. 

Captain B. W. Wakbfibld, D.L., J. P., gave a very interesting 
account of his journey to South Africa with the British Association. The 
address was illustrated with a large number of lantern slides from photo- 
graphs taken by the lecturer. The syllabus of the lecture was as follows: 
Geography, the first and most interesting branch of science — Teneriffe and 
Grand Canary — Table Bay — Eobben Island and the lepers — Simon's Bay — 
Groote Schuur — East London — Durban — Pietermaritzburg — Battlefields of 
Colenso and Ladysmith — Pretoria — Gold reefs of the Witwatersrand — 
Johannesburg and the Chinese — ^The High Veldt — Bloemfontein — Paarde- 
berg treck and Cronje's laager — Kimberley and its blue ground — Elerks- 
dorp and lava beds — Potchefstroom — Mosquitos and plum pudding— Losberg 
and Gatsrand — Magalliesberg and the tropics — Bhodesia — Matopos — 
World's View — Rhodes's grave — Victoria Falls — Zambesi and Livingstone 
Island. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Captain Wakefield was moved by Sir 
BosDiN LxBCH, seconded by Mr. Hebmakn Woollby, F.R.G.S., and 
carried unanimously. 



The 733rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 23rd, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Bev. S. A. Stbinthal, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 16th, 1906, were 
approved. 

Mr. J. J. Phelps gave a lecture, entitled "The Pyrenees and Pyrenean 
People," which was illustrated with over 100 lantern slides taken by the 
lecturer. 

Mr. F. ZiMHEBN moved, Mr. R. C. Phillips seconded, and it was 
resolved that the sincere thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Phelps 
for his interesting address and for the opportunity to see the splendid 
photographs. 



The 734th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 30th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Chablbs Robdeb. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 23rd, 1906, were 
approved. 

The following letter was received from the family of the late Mr. B. I. 
Belisha in response to the resolution of sympathy passed by the Society : — 

"The Brother and Sisters of the late Mr. Barrow I. Belisha tender 
their sincere thanks for kind sympathy and condolence." 

The Chairman announced the election of the following members: — 

Obdikabt: Miss Wilde, Mrs, Proctor, Mr. W. H. Reynolds, R.N.R., 
and Mr. E. H. Silver. 

Associate: Miss Proctor. 



150 Tlu Journal of tlie Mcmchester Geographical Society. 

Dr. A. C. Magiak, F.B.G.S., addressed the memberfi on "The Rhine 
and itB Legends," ilhistrated with lantetrn slides. (See page 135.) 

Mr. F. ZiMMEBN proposed, Mr. B. Bornmullex seconded, and it was 
resolved that the thanks of the meeting be aooorded to Dr. Magian for 
his very interesting lecture. 



The 735th Meeting of the Society was held an Tuesday, November 6th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 30th, 1906, were approved. 

Mrs. LoxTiSE HiBSCH gave an address on "Life in Queensland," 
illustrated with numerous lantern slides. 

Mr. John Stirling, who had lived in Queenstown, moved, and Mr. G. 
GiNGEB seconded, a hearty vote of thanks to Mrs. Hirsch for her very 
interesting address, and the vote of thanks was passed unanimously. 



The 736th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November 13th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 6th were approved. 

The election of Mr. Henry Landon Littler as an ordinary member was 
announced. 

Captain W. J. P. Benson, F.B.G.S., gave a lecture, entitled "To the 
Southern Pacific across the Andes." The lecture described a journey from 
Southampton to Buenos Ay res by way of Yigo, Lisbon, Madeira, Cape 
Verde Islands, Pernambuco, Bahia, Bio de Janeiro, and Monte Video; 
from Buenos Ayres through Argentina, across the Andes (over 23,000 ft. 
above the level of the sea), and through Chile to Valparaiso. The lecture 
was illustrated with over 100 specially-prepared slides. 

Mr. F. A. CoRTEz Leigh (who has just returned from a similar journey) 
moved, and Mr. F. Ziuhern seconded, and it was unanimously resolved, 
that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Captain Benson for his 
very interesting address. 



The 737th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November 20th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, the Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G^S, 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, Hon. Secretary, on behalf of the Council and 
members of the Society, presented an illuminated address to the Chairman 
in celebration of his 80th birthday. The following is the text of the 
address : — 

MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 

(President: His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, K.G.) 

16, St. Mary's Parsonage, Manchester, 

November 15th, 1906. 

To the Rev. S. Alfred Steinthal, F.R.G.S., Vice-President, and 
Chairman of the Council. 

Dear Sir, — ^We, the undersigned, on behalf of the Executive Com- 
mittee, Council, and members of the Manchester Geographical Society, 
beg to offer you our cordial congratulations on your having been spared 



Proceedings. 151 

to celebrate your 80th birthday. We trust that a fair measure of health 
and strength may be continued to you, so that the later years of a long 
and well-spent life may be full of satisfaction to yourself and family, and 
of sustained usefulness to the community. 

As members and officials of the Manchester Geogprs^hical Society, 
who have laboured for many years under your able and genial chairman- 
ship, we are well qualified to refer to the great value of the services 
which you have so ungrudgingly and unceasingly rendered to geographical 
science, and more especially to this particular Society. We feel that to 
your devotion, wisdom, and enthusiasm is due much of the success which 
has attended the operations of the Society during the twenty-two years 
which have expired since its foundation. 

We rejoice that you have been spared to see the Society well estab- 
lished in a permanent home, and we trust that you may be still spared for 
many years to guide and direct our efforts. 

In conclusion, we can assure you that no body of persons can ever 
have worked together with a more whole-hearted regard for their leader 
than have the imembers of this Society. On behalf of all, we beg to 
subscribe ourselves, in all sincerity. 

Yours most faithfully, 

(Signed), Habbt Nuttall, Vice-chairman, 
David A. Littlb, Hon. Treasurer, 
F. ZlHHSBN, 1 _ - , . 

J. Howard Rbbd, /Hon. Secretaries, 

C. A. Clarke, Hon. Secretary of Victorians, 
Habbt Sowkbbutts, Assistant Secretary. 

Mr. Nuttall, being unable to be present, wrote as follows: — 
"I am pleased to hear of the proposal to present an address to Mr. 
Steinthal on his 80th birthday, in which I shall join most heartily. His 
services to our Society have been unceasing and have covered many long 
years, and those labours have been included in the greater and ultimate 
object — ^the xulvancement of geographical science and knowledge in every 
direction. — Tours faithfully, 

"(Signed.) Habby Nuttall." 

Dr. T. Frank Southah, of Bowdon, gave a lecture on " Some South 
Sea Islands — Reminiscences," illustrated with many lantern slides. 

The Chaibkan, on behalf of the meeting, cordially thanked Dr. 
Southam for his interesting lecture. 



The 738th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November 
27th, 1906, at 7-30 p.m. 

In the unavoidable absence of the Bev. C. A. Killie, who had intended 
to come and give a lecture about China, the Council had arranged a 
soiree in order that the members might have an opportunity to see the 
rooms, and to afford the opportunity for the Chairman to make a state- 
ment about the financial position of the Society, and the necessity for a 
large increase in the membership. 



152 Tlie Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

The following was the programme: — 

7-30 p.m. : Beception of gaests, in the Lecture Hall, by Rev. S. Alfred 
Steinthal, F.B.G.S., the Chairman of the Council. 8-0 p.m.: Piano solo, 
"Grand Fantasia" (C. Gimble), Miss Lilian C. Heap, A.L.C.M.; song, 
*'Mona" (S. Adams), Mr. A. Howard Beed; song. Softly wakes my 
heart" (Saint-Saens), Miss Bessie Blackbnrn; ''cello, ''Andante from 
Concertstiick in D minor " (H. Heberlein), Miss Clara Bichardson; song, 
•The Admiral's Broom" (F. Bevan), Mr. A. Howard Beed; "A Few 
Bemarks on Arabic Music," with illustrations, Mr. B. Cobden Phillips; 
songs, (a) "Summer Bain," (6) "When the Birds go North" (Willeby), 
Miss Bessie Blackburn. 8-30 p.m.: Statement re the Society's work. 
8-45 p.m.: Befreshmente in the Members' Boom. 9-15 p.m.: Exhibition 
of Lantern Slides illustrating Life and Scenes on the Congo, with short 
descriptions by Mr. B. Cobden Phillips. 10-0 p.m.: "God Save the 
King." Accompanist: Mr. J. Hindle, L.B.A.M. 

On the proposition of Mr. Councillor Skaddok a hearty vote of thanks 
to the kind friends who had assisted with music and in other ways during 
the evening was carried unanimously. 



The 739th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 4th, 
1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the cbair. Alderman Sir Bosdin Lsbch, J.P. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on November 27th were taken as read. 

The Chairman announced the election of Mr. B. Lomas Jones as an 
ordinary member, and Miss M. L. Ash worth as an associate member. 

Mr. £. W. MxLLOB, J.P., F.B.G.S., gave a lecture, entitled, 
"Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian Posseefiions." (See page 113.) 
The lecture was illustrated with original l-antern slides. 

The Chairman proposed that the hearty thanks of those present be 
given to Mr. Mellor for his very interesting address and for the beautiful 
slides shown, and the motion was carried with applause. 



The 740th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 
11th, 1906, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Gbosos Gingbb. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on December 4th were approved. 

The Chairman announced the election of the following mmbers: — 

Obdinaby : Messrs. J. A. Hailwood, W. L. Crawford, M. Ellinger, 
B. G. Burton (from Associate). 

AssociATX: Miss Agnes Willoughby. 

A paper by Mr. C. H. Bellamy, F.B.G.S., on "Fairford Church, the 
Lantern of England/' was read by Mr. J. Howard Beed. The paper was 
illustrated with some specially-prepared lantern slides. 

The Chairman then called on Mr. Joel Wainwright, J. P., who read the 
following letter to Mr. Reed :— 

** Dear Sir, — In recognition of your great services in so many capacities 
to the above Society, the members are very desirous to place on record some 
grateful appreciation, and have thought that your ** Silver Wedding" was a 
suitable opportunity on which to subscribe the necessary fees to make you a 



Proceedings. 153 

Member and * Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society/ a position to which 
your knowledge of Geography fully entitles yon. 

** We also ask yonr good wife to accept the siWer rose bowl as a souvenir 
of the occasion, with our best wishes that you may long be spared to help 
each other. 

"It was fully intended by our well- beloved and venerable Chairman, the 
Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S., that he would personally write to you on the 
subject, but unfortunately his healtli makes it impossible ; which he and you, 
as well as ourselves, sincerely regret. 

** We cordially wish that your energy and vigour may be maintained for 
many, many years, to bless your family, to promote as heretofore the well- 
being of the Society, and of everybody about you. 

•* Yours faithfully, for the Subscribers, 

"(Signed) Joel Wainwright.** 

Mr. Reed responded in appropriate terms. 

Mr. Kebd gave a short address on *'Guba/' in order to exhibit 
to the members a fine set of lantern slides illustrating the life and scenery 
of that island. 

Mr. GiNOXB expressed, on behalf of the meeting, sincere thanks to 
Mr. Reed for his services that evening. 



The 741st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 18th, 
1906, at 6-30 p.m., and took the form of a Lecture to the Children of the 
Members. In the chair, Mr. T. W. Sowbrbutts. 

As Mr. J. Howard Beed was ill in bed with influenza, Mr. Jakes 
S. Reid, at considerable inconvenience, kindly took his place, and explained 
to the children a set of slides illustrating " Fifty Wonders of Nature and 
Art," then reading the touching story of " Jane Conquest,'' concluding 
with a few amusing pictures. 

A round of hearty applause in thanks to Mr. Reid was given by the 
children, and the proceedings terminated after a vote of sympathy with 
Mr. Reed in his illness had been passed. 



154 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Siociety. 



LIST OF MAPS, BOOKS, JOURNALS, ADDI- 
TIONS TO THE MUSEUM, dc, 



ACQUIRED BY THE SOCIETY FROM JANUARY Ist to DECEMBER 

3l8T, 1906. 



MAPS. 
EUROPE. 

Ordn-anoe Survey of England. Sheet 98, Stockport. Sheet 99, Chapel-en- 
le-Frith. Scale, 1 inch to a mile. 

The Crown Map of Lancaehire and Cheshire. Printed and compiled by 
W. and A. K. Johnston Limited, Edinburgh. Scale, 3 miles to an 
inch. Manchester: Bartley and Travis. 190(5. 

Nouvelle Carte de la Suisse. Scale, 6 miles to an inch. Londre: W. Faden. 
1778. *Mr. R. J. Taylor, per Mr. David Jackson. 

Map of Turkey. Scale, 1/250,000. Constantinople Sheet. Topographical 
Section, General Staif, No. 2,097. *The Director of Military Opera- 
tions. 

ASIA. 

New Oro^raphical Map of Asia. Compiled under the Direction of H. J. 
Mackmder, M.A. Scale, 1/8,721,500. London: Edward Stanford. 1906. 
*The Publishers. 

Map of Afghanistan. Based on Survey of India Mapk». Scale, 1/2,027,520. 
T.S.. G.S. No. 1947. *The Director of Military Operations. 

Map of Hong Eong and of the Territory leased to Great Britain under the 
Convention between Great Britain and China, signed at Peking on 
the 9th of June, 1898. Scale, 1/84,480. T.S., G.S. No. 1393. War 
Office, August, 1905. *The Director of Military Operations 

Map of the Province of Che-Chiang. (Provisional Issue.) Scale, 1/1,000,000. 
T.S., G.S. No. 2152. *The Director of Military Operations. 

Map of the Province of Chih-Li. Scale, 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2095. 
*The Director of Military Operations. 

Map of the Privince of Ho-Nan. Scale, 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 1994. 
*The Director of Military Operations. 

Map of the Province of Shan-tung. Scale, 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 
1936. War Office, 1905. *The Director of Military Operations. 

Map of the Province of Ssu-Ch'uan. (Eastern Sheet.) Scale, 1/1,000,000. 
T.S., G.S. No. 2048. *The Director of Military Operations. 

• Donor. 



List Of Atlases, Albums, tkc. 155 

AFBICA. 

Index Map of Africa to sheets on Scale of 1/1,000,000 and 1/250,000. T.S., 
G.S. No. 1544. (Revised Edition.) *The Director of Military 
Operations. 

Africa. Scale, 1/1,000,000. Sheet 72 Kumase, Sheet 84 Nouvelle Anvers, 
Sheet 86 Albert Nyanza, Sheet 115 Andara, Sheet 123 Angra Pequena. 
T.S., G.S. No. 1539. *Tbe Director of Military Operations. 

Africa. Scale. 1/1,000,000. Bahr el Ghazal. Parts of Sheets 77, 78, 85, 
and 86. T.S., G.S. No. 2102 *The Director of Military Operations. 

Africa. Scale, 1/1,000,000. Orange Biver. Parts of Sheets 127 and 128. 
T.S., G.S. No. 2145. *The Director of Military Operations. 

Africa. Scale, 1/250,000. Sheets 68 L, 58 P, 59 I, 59 M, Sierra Leone. 
Sheets 60 G, 60 H, 60 K, 60 L, 60 O, 60 P, Gold Coast. Sheets 63 A, 
63 M, Northern Nigeria. Sheets 70 D, 71 A, Sierra Leone. Sheets 
72 C, 72 D, 72 O, Gold Coast. Sheets 86 A, 86 C, 86 D, 86 E, 86 G, 
86 H, 86 I, 86 K, 86 L. 86 M, 86 N, 86 O, 86 P, Uganda. Sheets 94 A, 
94 B, 94 C, 94 D, 94 E, 94 F, 94 G, 94 H, 94 I, 94 J, 94 K, 94 L, 94 M, 
94 N, 94 0, 95 A, East African Protectorate. T.S., G.S. No. 1764. 
♦The Director of Military Operations. 

Anglo-German Boundary in East Equatorial Africa. Triang^lation Chart. 
Sheets 1, 2, and 3. British Commission Triangulation. 1904-1905. 
Scale, 1/400,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2220. «The Director of Military 
Operations. 

AMEBICA. 

Panama. Scale, 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2081. War Office, May, 
1906. *Th€ Director of Military Operations. 

OCEANIA. 

€teological Sketch Map of Queensland, showing Mineral Localities. Pre- 

Sared under the Supervision of B. Dunstan, F.O.A., and Compiled by 
[. W. Fox. Scale, 40 miles to 1 inch. Brisbane: Geological Survey 
Office. 1905. ♦Queensland Geological Survey. 

Geol<]^ical Map of Little Forest and Conjola. With Sections. Showing 
Gr^ta (or lower) Coal Measures. By J. B. Jaquet, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., 
ana L. F. Harper, F.G.S., Geological Surveyors. Scale 1 inch to a 
mile. To accompany Kecords Geological Survey, New South Wales, 
Vol. VIII., Part 2, 1906. *Geological Survey. 

Geological Map of the Gerringong District (with Sections) by L. F. Harper, 
F.G.S., Geological Surveyor. Scale, 4 inches to a mile. To accompany 
Beoor<}s Geological Survey, New South Wales, Vol. VIII., Part 2, 1906. 
♦(Geological Survey. 



ATLASES, ALBUMS, &c. 

Atlas of Modern and Ancient Geography. London and Edinburgh : W. 
and B. Chambers. 1858. ♦Mr. George Thomas. 

Atlas 61 the World's Commerce. By J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S., 
F.B.S.E. Parts 1-17. London: George Newnes Limited. 1906. *The 
Publishers. 

Pocket Atlas of the Counties of South Britain or Enfi^land and Wales. 
London: Carington Bowles (about 1780). *Mr. Charles Boeder. 



15G The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

Climatological Atlas of India. Published by the Authority of the Govern- 
ment of India, under the Direction of Sir John Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.E.S. 
Issued by the Indian Meteorolog>ical Department. 1906. *The 
Secretary of State for India in Council. 

Atlas to accompany Monograph XXXII. on the Geology of the Yellowstone 
National Park, by Arnold Hague. Washington: United States 
Geological Survey. 1904. *Director of the Survey. 

Panorama of Constantinople (framed photo, 6 feet by .15 inches). *Mr. 
George Tliomas. 

Panorama Ofver Norrkoping. *Mr. George Thomas. 

106 Photographs on 49 Mounts (21^ inches by 14^ inches) in a specially 
designed box. *Mt. George Thomas. 



BOOKS. 

GENERAL. 

A Progressive Course of Comparative Geography on the Concentric System. 
byP. H. L'Estrange, B.A. Illustrated by 177 Pictures and Diagrams in 
the Text, -and accompanied by 172 Maps and Diagrams in Colour, with 
Index, forming a Complete Atlas. London: G^rge Philip and Son. 
1906. *The Publishers. 

Geographical Gleanings, by the Rev. Frank R. Burrows, M.A. London: 
George Philip and Son Limited. 1906. *The Publishers. 

Bibliotheca Geographica, Band XI., 1902; Lerausgegeben von der Gesell- 
Hchaft fiir Erdkunde zn Berlin. Bearbeitet von O. Baschin. Berlin: 
1905. 

Eloges d' Elisee Reclus et de De Eell^-Erauz par Monsieur le Becteur 
Guillaume de Greef (with Portraits). Bruxelles: University Nouvelle. 
1906. •Institut Geographique Eliis^ Reclus. 

Les Volcanfl de le Terre par Elisee Reclus. Premier Fascicule. Map5. 
Bruxelles: Soci^te Beige d' Astronomie. 1906. "i^Institut Geographique 
Elisee Reclus. 

A Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer or Geographical Dictionary of the 
World. Edited by Angelo Heilprin and Louis Heilprin. Philadelphia 
and London : J. B. 'Lippincott Company. 1906. *The Publishers. 

Statistical Tables relating to British Colonies, Possessions, and Protecto- 
rates. Part XXIX. 1904. London: Printed for His Majesty's Sta- 
tionery Office. 1906. *Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S. 

Professional Handbook of the Colonies. London: Emigrants' Information 
Office. 1905. *The Agent-General for the Cape of Good Hope. 

Rules for the Transliteration of Place-Names occurring on Foreign Map.^. 
(k>mpiled in the Topographical Section, General Staff, by Alexander 
Knox, B.A., Map Curator. London: 1906. *Tlie Director of Military 
Operations. 

The British Cotton Growing Association. Second Annual Report for the 
year ending August Slst, 1906. *The Secretary. 

The Co-operative Wholesale Societies Limited Annual for 1906. Illustrated. 
Manchester: 1906. *Mr. G. H. Warren. 

The Traveller's Gazette. Vol. XVI. Nos. 1-12. 1906. Illustrated. 
London : Thos. Cook and Son. 1906. *The Publishers. 

World Travel Gazette. January to May, July, September to December, 
1906. Illustrated. Manchester: Dean and Dawson. 1906. *The 
Publishers. 



List of Books. 157 

Commercial Intelligenoe. Yol. XY., Kos. 376-427. Illustrated. London: 

Henry Sell. 1906. 
The "DaUy Mail" Year Book for 1906. Edited by Percy L. Parker. 

London: The Amalgamated Press Limited. 1906. ^The Publishers. 

Macmillan'e Magazine. Nos. 3-14, January to December, 1906. London: 
Macmillan and Co. 1906. *The Publishers. 

Godlee Observatory, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester, First 
Annual Report, 1905. *T)iq Principal. 

The Earliest Historical Belations between Mexico and Japan. From 
Original Documents Preserved in Spain and Japan. Berkeley : Univer- 
sity of California PubUcations, American Archeology and Ethnology. 
Vol. lY., No. 1. *The University of California. 

Man's Responsibility, or How and Why the Almighty Introduced Evil upon 
the Earth, by Thomas G. Carson. New York and London: G. P. 
Putnam's Sons. 1905. *The Author. 



BRITISH ISLANDS. 

Royal Commission on the Canals and Inland Navigations of the United 
Kingdom. Yol. I., Part 2. Minutes of Evidence. With Map. *Mr. 
Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S. 

Guide to the Geological Model of the Isle of Purbeck, bv A. Strahan, M.A., 
F.R.S. Maps. London : The Geological Survey and Museum. England 
and Wales. 1906. *The Secretary of the Board of Education, per the 
Director of the Geological Survey. 

Black's Tourist's Guide to Derbyshire : Its Towns, Watering-places, Dales, 
and Mansions. Edited by Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A. Maps and 
Illustrations. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black. 1879. *Mr. H. 
Sowerbutts. 

A Guide to Tideswell and its Church. Compiled by Rev. J. M. J. Fletcher, 
M.A., Yicar of Tideswell. (Third Edition.) Illustrated. Tideswell: 
A Harrison. 1905. 

Recent Archaeological Discoveries at Alderley Edge, by C. Roeder and P. S. 
Graves. (Reprinted from " Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire 
Antiquarian Society." Yol. XXIII.). *Mr. C. Roeder. 

Melandra Castle. Being the Report of the Manchester and District Branch 
of the Classical Association for 1905. Edited by Professor R. S. 
Conway, Litt.D. Plans and Illustrations. Manchester: Sherratt and 
Hughes. 1906. 

New Routes -and Old Acres. Being the Illustrated Official Guide of the 
Cheshire Lines Committee, by T E. Edwards. 1902. *Mr. M. W. 

Thompstone. 
Beginnings of the Manchester Post Office, by C. Roeder. Illustrated. 
Manchester: Richard Gill. 1905. *The Author. 

The Beginnings of Manchester. The Ancient Churches, Parsonage, Acres 
Field, and Acres Fair In Manchester, by C. Roeder. (Reprinted from 
"Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society," 
Yol. XXIII.). •The Author. 

Summer Holidays in North-East England, by C. Cotterell. Illustrated 
with Photog^raphs by Payne Jennings. London : Walter Scott Limited. 
*Tnie North-Eastem Railway Company. 

The Sunderland Year Book, 1906. A Local History, Guide, and Annual 
Review. Edited by David Bell. Illustrated. •Mr. J. J. Gleave. 

The Most interesting District in England. Yorkshire, etc., by M. B. 
Coteworth, of York. Illustrated. York: North-Eastern Railway 
Company, 1906. *The Publishers. 



158 The Joamal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

York in Pictures, 1800-1900, by John Fenwick. 120 Illustrations. York : 
Delittle, Fenwick and Company. 

The Official Guide to the Great Eastern Railway. Maps and Illustrations. 
London: Cassell and Company Limited. 1905. *Tlie Great Eastern 
Railway Company, per Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

Holidays in Eastern Counties. Edited hj Percy Lindley. Illustrated. 

London: 1906. *The Great Eastern Railway Company, per Mr. M. W. 

Thompstone. 
Summer Holidays, by Percy Lindley. Illustrated. London : 1905. *The 

Great Eastern Railway Company, per Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

Sun Pictures of the Norfolk Broads, bv Payne Jennings. With Letterpress 
Description by E. R. Suffling. Ashtead, Surrey : Ite Studio Art Photo 
Works. *The Great Eastern Railway Company, per Mr. M. W. 
Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Guide to Aldeburgh and Neighbourhood. London : Jarrold 
and Sons. 1898. *Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Handbook to Cromer and Neighbourhood, by L. Lingwood. 
London: Jarrold and Sons. *Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Guide to Felixstowe a^nd Neighbourhood, by L. Lingwood. 
London : Jarrold and Sons. 1899. ^Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Guide to Hunstanton and Neighbourhood, by F. Maclean. 
London : Jarrold and Sons. 1899. ^Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Handbook to Lowestoft and District, by T. W. Westgate. 
London: Jarrold and Sons. *Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

The Illustrated Guide to South wold and Neighbourhood. London : Jarrold 
and Sons. 1898. *Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

A Guide to Aberystwyth and the Devil's Bridg^e. Map and Illustrations. 
Manchester: Abel Heywood and Son. 1906. *Mr. J. Howard Re^. 

A Guide to Barmouth and Harlech. Map and Illustrations. Manchester: 
Abel Heywood and Son. 1906. *Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

A Guide to Dolgelly. Map and Illustrations. Manchester: Abel Heywood 
and Son. 1906. *Mr. J. Howard Reed. 



EUROPE. 

Norwxiy as a Winter and Summer Health Resort, by A. Magelssen, 
Physician. Illustrated. Kristiania. 1906. *Mr. John Sorensen. 

Sweden. A Short Handbook on Sweden's History, Industries, Social 
Systems, Sport, Art, Scenery, etc. Edited by the Tourist Traffic 
Society (Turisttrafikforbundet), Stockholm. 1906. Map and Illustra- 
tions. *L' University Royale d' Uppsala. 

Sweden. A Short Handbook on Sweden's History, Industries, Social 
Systems, Sport, Art, Scenery, etc. Edited by the Swedish Tourist 
Traffic Society (Turisttrafikforbundet). Map and Illustrations. 
Stockholm: 1906. *The Editors. 

Svenska Turist Fdreningens Arsskrift, 1906. Med Illustrationer och 
Kartskisser. Stockholm. '^Svenska Turistforeningen. 

Der Nord-Ostsee-Kanal und die Elektrische Beleuchtung desselben. Map, 
Plans, and Illustrations. Koln : M. Du Mont-Schaubercf. 1895. *Mr, 
C. A. Clarke. 

Simplonpas hnd Simplontunnel, von P. Cornelius Kntifel, S. O. Cist. *Thc 
Right Rev. the feishop of Salford. 

Toulouse. Livret-Guide, Illustr^; publie par le Syndicat d'Initiative de 
Toulouse. Printemps. 1906. *Tlie Publishers. 



List Of Books. 159 

ASIA. 

Traitd and Stories of Anglo-Indian Life, by Lieut.-Colonel Addison. 
Illustrated. London: Smith, Elder, and Co. 1858. «Mt. Charles 
Boed«r. 

District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Vols VIII. 
Agra, XX. Fatehpur. XLII. Kheri, XLIII. Fyzabad, XLIV. Gondi. 
♦ITie Secretary of State for India. 

Assam District Gazetteers. Vols. I. Cachar, II. Sylret, III. Goalpara, IV. 
Kamrup, V. Darrang, VI. Nowgong, VII. Sibsagar, VIII. Lakhimpur, 
IX. Naga Hills and Manipur. -it^The Secretary of State for India. 

Bengal District Gazetteers. Shahabad. Vol. 1. ^The Secretary of 
State for India. 

Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vols. II.-B. Surat and Broach, 
III.-B. Kaira and Panch Mahals, IV .-B. Ahmadabad, V.-B. Cutch, 
Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, VI.-B. Bewa Kantha, Cambay, and Surat 
Agency; X.-B Batnag^i and Savantvadi, XI.-B. Solaba and Janjira, 
XII.-B. Khandesh and Mehwas Estates, XIII.-B. Thana and Jawhar, 
XV.-B. Kanara, XVI.-B. Nasik and Surgana, XVII. Ahmadnagar. 
XVIII.-B. Poona and Bhor, XIX.-B. Satara Phaltan, and Aundh, 
XX.-B. Sholapur and Akalkot, XXI.-B., Belgaum, XXII.-B. Dharwar 
and Savanur, XXIII.-B. Bijapur, Jath, and Daflapur; XXIV.-B 
Kolhapur and Southern Mahratta Jachirs. *The Secretary of State for 
India. 

Central Provinoee District Gazetteers. A. Volumes. (Descriptive.) Damoh, 
Narsinghpur, Wardha. *The Secretary of State for India. 

Central Provinces District Gazetteers. B. Volumes. (Statistical Tables, 
1891-1901.) Balaghat, Betul, Bhandara, Bilaspur, Chanda, Chhind- 
wara, Damoh, Hoshangabad, Jubbulpore, Mandia, Nagpur, Narsingh- 
pur, Nimar, Baipur, Saugor, Seoni, Wardha. *The Secretary of State 
tor India. 

Madras District Gazetteers. Tanjore Vols. I.-II., South Arcot Vol. I., 
Godavari Vol. II., Guntur Vol. II., Kistna Vol. II., Malabar Vol. II., 
Vizagapatam Vol. II. *The Secretary of State for India. 

Punjab District Gazetteers. (Part B. Statistical Tables, 1904.) Vols. II. 
Hissar District and Loharu State, III. Bohtak District and Dunjana 
State, V. Delhi District, XIII. Hotshiarpur District, XXX. Mianwali 
District, XXXIV. Muzaffargarh District. *The Secretary of State for 
India. 

Punjab District Gazetteers. Vol. XIII., Part A. Hoshiapur District. 
With Maps. 1904. *The Secretary of State for India. 

District Gazetteers. Statistics, 1901-2. Angul, Balasore, Bankura, Birh- 
hum, Bhagalpur, Burdwan, Calcutta, Champaran, Cuttack, Darbhanga, 
Darjeeling, Gava, Hazaribagh, Hooghly, Howrah, Jessore, Khulna, 
Manbhum, Midnapore, Monghyr, Murshidabad, Muzaifarpur, Nadia, 
Palamau, 24-Pargana8, Patna, Puri, Purnea, Ranchi, Saran, Shahabad, 
Singhbhum, and Sonthal Parganas. *The Secretary of State for India. 

Goorg District Gazetteer. B. Volume. *The Secretary of State for India. 

Statistics 1901-02 of Chota Nagpur Tributary State, Cooch Bihar State, 
Hill Tippera State, Orissa Tributary States, and Sikkim State. *The 
Secretary of State for India. 

Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet, by Sarat Chandra Das, CLE. Edited 
by the Hon. W. W Rockhill. Maps and Illustrations. London: 
Royal Geographical Society. 1902. 



) 

IGO T}ie Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

AFRICA. 

Notes on the Qeology of the Continent of Africa. With an Introduction 
and Bibliography. Compiled in the Department of the General Staff, 
War Office, by A. Knox, B.A. London: War Office. 1906. *The 
Director of Military Operations. 

Mission Scientifique Congo-Nil. R^sultats des Observations, 1902-1905, par 
le Commandant Lemaire. Carte. Bruxelles: L'Etat Independent 
du Congo. *The Author. 

Tra Mei-Afriko. (A Travers TAfrique Centrale.) Conference avec projeo- 
tions donnee au 2me Congr^s univerael d' Esperanto, k Geneve, le 
samedi ler Septembre, 1906, par le Commandant Lemaire. *Tfae 
Author. 

At the Back of the Black Man's Mind, or Notes on the Kingly Office in 
West Africa, by B. £. Dennett. Illustrated. London: Macmillan and 
Co. 1906. (Price lOs. net.) *The Author. 

Cape Colony Handbook. Map. London: Emigrants' Information Office. 
1905. *The Agent-General for the Cape of Good Hope. 

Natal, an Illustrated Official Railway Guide and Handbook of General 
Information. Compiled and Edited by C. W. Francis Harrison. 
Maps and Illustrations. London: Payne Jennings. 1903. *Mr. 
Gustav Behrens, J. P. 

The Uganda Railway, British East Africa. From Mombasa to Lake Vic- 
toria Nyanza, and by steamer round the Great Lake. Illustrated. 
^Messrs. Thos. Cook and Son. 

AMERICA. 

Geography of the Dominion of Canada and Atlas of Western Canada. 
Issued by the Direction of Hon. C. Sifton, Minister of the Interior, 
Ottawa, Canada. *The Commissioner of Emigration. 

Twenty Pamphlets (with Maps and Illustrations) describing the Country 
traversed by the Grand Trunk Railway System. *The Grand Trunk 
Railway, per Mr. T. C. Salter, Liverpool. 

Sixteen descriptive Pamphlets (with Maps and Illustrations) of Canada and 
the Canaaian Pacific Railway. *Tne Canadian Pacific Railway Com- 
pany, per Mr. F. W. Flanagan, London. 

The Record of the Celebration of the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the 
Birth of Benjamin Franklin, under the Auspices of the American 
Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful 
Knowledge, April I7th to April 20th. 1906. Illustrated. Philadelphia: 
American Philosophical Society. 1906. *The Publishers. 

Climatology of the United States. Maps. Washington: United States 
Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. Bulletin Q. •The Chief, 
United States Weather Bureau. 

Destructive Floods in the United States in 1905. Maps and Illustrations. 
Washington: United States Geological Survey. Water Supply and 
Irrigation Paper. No. 162. *The Director of the Survey. 

Slate Deposits and Slate Industry of the United States. Maps and Elus- 
trations. Washington: United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 
275. *Thc Director of the Survey. 

A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States. Washington: United 
States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 274. *The Director of the 
Survey. 

Cold Waves and Frost in the United States. Illustrated. Washington: 
United States Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. Bulletin P 
•The Chief, United States Weather Bureau. 



List of Books. 161 

Beport on the Operations of the Ck>al-te&ting Plant of the United States- 
Geological Survey at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 
Mo., 1904. Map and Illustrations. Washington: United States 
(Geological Survey, Professional Paper. No. 48, Parta 1, 2, and 3. 
1906. *The Director of the Survey. 

Report of Progress of Stream Measurements for the Calendar Year 
1905. Parts I., II., III., IV., V., VII. Washington: United States^ 
Geological Survey. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers. Nos. 165,. 
166, 167, 168, 169, 171. *The Director of the Survey. 

Underground Water Resources of Long Island, New York. Maps and 
Illustrations. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Pro- 
fessional Paper, No. 44. *The Director of the Survey. 

Corundum «nd its Occurrence and Distribution in the United States, 
Maps and Illustrations. Washin^n : United States Geological 
Survey. Bulletin No. 269. *The Director of the Survey. 

Taoonic Physiography. Maps and Illustrations. Washinp^n: United 
States Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 272. *The Director of the 
Survey. 

Weir Experiments, Coefficients, and Formulas. Illustrations. Washington: 
United States Geological Survey. Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, 
No. 150. *The Director of the Survey. 

Underground Water in the Valleys of Utah Lake and Jordan River, Utah. 
Maps and Illustrations. Washington : United States Geological Survey. 
Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 157. *The Director of the 
Survey. 

The Montana Lobe of the Eeewatin Ice Sheet. Maps and Illustrations. 
Washington: United States Geological Survey. Professional Paper, 
No. 50. *The Director of the Survey. 

The Geology of Moniteau County. Maps and Illustrations. Rolla, Mo. : 
Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Vol. III., 2nd Series. *The 
Bureau. 

The Geology of the Granby Area. Ma^s and Dlustrations. Rolla, Mo. : 
Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Vol. IV., 2nd Series. "^The 
Bureau. 

Ore Deposits of the Silver Peak Quadrangle Nevada. Maps and Illus- 
trations. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Professional 
Paper, No. 55. *The Director of the Survey. 

Contribution to the Physical Anthropology of California. Based on 
Collections in the Department of Anthropology of the University of 
California and in the United States National Museum. Illustrated. 
Berkeley: University of California Publications, American Archeologv 
and Ethnology, Vol. IV., No. 2. *The University of California. 

The Drumlins of South-eastern Wisconsin. Maps and Illustrations. 
Washington: United States Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 273. 
*The Director of the Survey. 

Water Powers of Northern Wisconsin. Maps and Illustrations. Washing- 
ton: United States Geological Survey. Water Supply and Irrigation- 
Paper No. 156. *The Director of the Survey. 

Report on the Lead and Zinc Deposits of Wisconsin, with an Atlas of 
Detailed Maps, by Professor U. S. Grant. Madison: Wisconsin 
Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin No. XIV. *The 
Commissioners of the Survey. 

Geology and Mineral Resources of Mississippi. Map and Illustrations. 
Washington : United States Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 283. *The 
Director of the Survey. 

Oil Fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coastal Plain. Maps and Illustra- 
tions. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Bulletin No 
282. *The Director of the Survey. 



162 The Joutmal oftlie Manchester Geographical Socitty. 

The Geology and Water Resources of the Eastern Portion of the Panhandle 
of Texas. Maps and Illustrations. Washington: United Stat^ 
Geological Survey. Water and Irrigation Paper, Nd. 154. *Tl«e 
Director of the Survey. 

The Underflow in Arkansas Valley in Western Kansas. lUostrated. 
Washington: Unitdd States Geological Survey. Water Supply and 
Irrigation Paper, No. 153. *The Director of the Survey. 

Geology of the Bighorn Mountains. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : 
United States Geological Survey. Professional Paper, No. 51. ♦The 
Director of the Survey. 

Geology and Mineral Resources of Part of the Cumberland Gap Coal Field, 
Kentucky. Maps and Illustrations. Washington ; United States 
Geological Survey. Professional Paper, No. 49. •The Director of the 

Survey. 

The Copper Deposits of the Clifton-Morenci District, Arizona. Maps and 
Illustrations. Washington : United States Greological Survey. Profes- 
sional Paper, No. 43. *The Director of the Survey. 

Geology and Water Resources of Oklahoma. Maps and Illustrations. 
Washington: United States Geological Survey. W^ater Supply and 
Irrigation Paper, No. 148. *The Director of the Survey. 

Geology of the Boulder District, Colorado. Maps and Illustrations. 
United States Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 266. *The Director 
of the Survey. 

The Tertiary and Quaternary Pectens of California. Map and Illustra- 
tions. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Professional 
Paper, No. 47. *nie Director of the Survey. 

Geology and Water Resources of Owens Valley, California. Map and 
Illustrations. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Water 
Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 181. *The Director of the Survey. 

« The Geography and Geology of Alaska : A Summary of Existing Know- 
ledge. With a Section on Climate and a Topographic Map and Descrip- 
tion thereof. Illustrated. Washington: United States Geological 
Survey. Profeasioual Paper, No. 45. *The Director of the Survey. 

\ Report on Progress of Investigations of Mineral Resources of Alaska in 
1905. Maps and Illustrations. Washington: United States Geological 
Survey. Bulletin No. 284. *The Director of the Survey. 

, A Reconnaissance of the Matanuska Coal Field, Alaska, in 1905. Maps and 
Illustrations. Washington: United States Geological Survey. Bulletin 
No. 289. *The Director of the Survey. 

» Geology and C<ml Resources of the Cape Lisburne Region, Alaska. Maps 
and Illustrations. Washington: United States Geological Survey. 
Bulletin No. 278. *The Director of the Survey. 

\ The Rampart Gold Placer Region, Alaska. Map and Illustrations. 
Washington: United States Geologic.il Survey. Bulletin No. 280. 
*The Director of the Survey. 

> Mineral Resources of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Maps and Illustration^. 
Washingtm: United States Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 277. 
*The Director of the Survey. 

Das Heutige Mexiko und seine Kulturfortschritte von Paul George. Beihefr 
zu den Mitteilungen der Geoirraphischen GeeelLschaft. Jena. 1906. 
•Geographii^he Gesellschaft. 

•Cotton Growing in the West Indies. Addresses by Sir Daniel Morri.s. 
K.C.M.G., D.Sc. Map. Manchester: The British Cotton Growing 
Association. 1906. *Th& Association. 

A Description of British Guiana, Geographical and Statistical: Exhibiting 
its Resources and Capabilities, by R. H. Schomburgk. Map. London : 
Simpkin, Marshall, and Co. 1840. *Mr. Charles Koeder. 



List of Books. 163 

Becensement General de la Yille de Bu^nos-Ayres. Effectu^ lee 11 at 18 
Septembre, 1904. Plan and Illustrations. Bu6noe-A.7Tes. 1906. 
^Directeur de la Statistiquo Mnnicipale. 

OCEANIA. 

The Romance of the South Seas, by Clement L. Wragge, F.R.G.S. Illus- 
trated. London : Chatto and Windus. 1906. 

Australia To-day. An epitome of Australia's Resources and Attractiona. 
Illustrated. ' (Special Number of the Australasian Traveller, December 
15th, 1905.) Melbourne. 1905. ^KThe Agent-General for South 
Australia. 

Australia To-day. An Epitome of Australia's Resources and Attractions. 
Illustrated. (Special Number of the Australaeian Traveller, December 
15th, 1905.) Melbourne. 1905. «The Agent-General of New South 
Wales. 

The Victorian Settlers' Guide and Handbook of the Land Laws. Maps and 
Illustrations. Brisbane. 1905. "^The Agent-General for Victoria. 

The Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria. Vol. IV., Parts 
1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12. 1906. Maps and IlIiKtrations. •Tlie 
Agent-General for Victoria. 

The Year Book of New South Wales. Map and Illustrations. 1906. *The 
Agent-General for New South Wales. 

Picturesc^ue New South Wales. An Illustrated Guide for Settler and 
Tounst, by T. A. Coehlan. Map and Illustrations. Sydney. 1903. 
*The Agent-General for New South Wales. 

Guide to the Jenolan Caves, New South Wales, by O. Trickett, L.S., M.S. 
Plans and Illustrations. Sydney: Geological Survey of New South 
Wales. 1905. *The Publishers. 

Guide to the Wombevan Caves, New South Wales, by O. Trickett, L.S., 
M.S. Maps and Illustrations. Sydney: Geological Survey of New South 
Wales. 1906. *The Publishers. 

The Queensland Official Year Book, 1901. Illustrated. Brisbane. 1901 
♦The Agent-General for Queensland. 

The Year-book of Queensland, 1906. Map. ♦The Agent-General foi 
Queensland. 

Queensland Handbook. Map. London : Emigrants' Information Office. 
1906. *The Agent-General for Queensland. 

A Queenly Colony. Pen Sketches and Camera Glimpses. By W. H. Traill 
Maps and Illustrations. Brisbane. 1901. ♦The Agent-General for 
Queensland. 

The Central State. South Australia: Its History, Progress, and Resources, 
by D. J. Gordon. Illustrated. Adelaide. 1903. ♦The Agent-General 
for South Australia. 

The Selector's Guide to the Crown Lands of Western Australia. Maps and 
Illustrations. Perth. 1904. ♦The Agent-General for Western 
Australia. 

Tasmania Handbook. Map. London: Emigrants' Information Office. 
1905. ♦The Agent-General for Tasmania. 

Tasmania's Halcyon Isle, by R. E. Macnaghten. Illustrated. London: 
Pall Mall Magazine, May, 1905. ♦The Agent-General for Tasmania. 

Tasmania. Report of the Department of Lands and Surveys for 1904-1905, 
by E. A. Counsel, F.R.G.S., Surveyor-General and Secretary for Lands. 
Hobart. 1905. ♦The Agent-General for Tasmania. 



164 The Journal of the Manchester Oeographical Society. 

Tasmania. Crown Lands Guide. 1905. Published by the Authority of 
the Hon. A. Hean, Minister of Lands and Works. Ma^ and Illustra- 
tions. Hobart. 1905. *The Agent-General for Tasmania. 

Tasmania as a Manufacturing Centre, by B. E. Macnaghten. London:- 
The " Empire Review," April, 1902. ♦The Agent-General for Tasmania. 

The New Zealand Official Year Book. 1905. Wellington. 1905. *Tlie 
High Commissioner for New Zealand. 

New Zealand Handbook. Map. London: Emigrants' Information Office. 
1906 *The High Commissioner for New Zealand. 



POLAR REGIONS. 

A Peep at the Esquimaux; or. Scenes on the Ice. To which is annexed, A 
Polar Pastoral. Engravings. London: T. AUman. 1833. *Mt. 
Charles Roeder. 

Northern Waters: Captain Roald Amundsen's Ooeanographic Observations 
in the Arctic Seas in 1901. With a Discussion of the Origin of the 
Bottom-Waters of the Northern Seas, by Fridtjof Nansen. (With 11 
Plates.) Christiania: Jaoob Dybwad, for Fridtjof Nansen Fond. 
1906. *The Author. 



LIST OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. Sso. 
(EXCHANGES.) 

BRITISH. 

Belfast. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Report and Pro- 
ceedings. (Nothing received.) 

Burnley. Literary and Scientific Club. (Nothing received.) 

Cardiff. Naturalists' Society. Report and Transactions. Vol. XXXVIII., 
1905. 

Croydon. Natural History and Scientific Society. Proceedings and Trans- 
actions. February 21st, 1905, to January 16th, 1906. 

Edinburgh. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Magazine. 1906, Vol. 
XXfl., Nob. 1-12 and Index. 

Glasgow. Greological Society. (Nothing received.) 

Glasgow. ^ Royal Philosophical Society. Proceedings. 1905-1906, Vol. 

Hertford. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Trans- 
actions. Vol. XII., Noe. 7-9. 

Leeds. Geological Association. Transactions. Part XIII., 1900-1905. 

Leeds. Yorkshire Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. XVI., Part 1. 

Leeds. Yorkshire Naturalists' Union. (Nothing received.) 



List of Exchanges. 165 

Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Transactions. Vol. X., 
Parts 1, 2. 

Liverpool. Greog^raphical Society. Transactions and Fourteenth Annnal 
Report, 1905. 

Liverpool. G^eological Society. Proceedings. (Nothing received.) 

London. African Society Journal. (Nothing received.) 

London. Anti-Slavery Reporter. Vol. XXVI., Nos. 1-5. Report for 1906. 

London. Board of Trade. (See Imperial Institute.) 

London. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of 
74th Meeting, South Africa, Au&fust and September, 1905. South 
Africa Meeting, 1905: Report of the Corresponding Societies Com 
mittee and of the Conference of Delegates held in London. York Meet- 
ing, 1906: Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee and of 
the Conference of Delegates. 

London. The Colliery Guardian. 1906, Nos. 2349-2400. 

London. Royal Colonial Institute. Report of Proceedings. 1905-1906, 
Vol. XXXVII. 

London. East India Association. (Nothing received.) 

London. Emigrants' Information Office. Combined Circulars for Canada, 
Australasia, and South Africa. 1906, Quarterly. 

London. Royal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal. 1906, 
January to December. Year Book and Record. 

London. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. Vol. IV., Nos. 1-4. 

London. India Office. List of Maps, Plans, etc., of India and other part* 
of Asia. Appendices, Nos. LIII.-LVII. 

London. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin. 1903, No. 1; 1904, No. 1; 
1906, Noe. 1-9, and Appendices I.-V. 

London. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. Vol. XXVI., Part 
IV. ; XXVII., Parts 1, 2. Report and List of Fellows. 

London. Review of Reviews. 1906, Nos. 193-204. 

London. The Speaker. 1906, Nos. 327-362, 367. 

London. War Office. Topog^phical Section, General Staff. Maps. (See 
list of Maps.) 

London. War Office. Catalogue of Maf^. Accessions. 1905, July to 
December; 1906, January to June. 

London. War Office Library. List of Accessions. 1906, January to 
December. 

London. War Office Library. Geographical Index (Extra European) of 
Acoessi<ms. 1905, Annual; 1906, January to December. 

London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps in Books and Periodicals con- 
tained in the War Office Library. Accessions. 1905. 

Manchester. Ge^oncal and Mining Society. Transactions. Vol. XXVIIL, 



Part 21; XXIX.. 7-8. 

nchester. Literary and 
Vol. 50, Parts I., II., and 



Manchester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings. 



166 The Journal oftlie Manchester Geographical Society 

Manchester. Museum, Owens College. Publications. No. 58 (Notes on 
Two Votive Bag-Branches and a Prayer Stick, by W. E. A. Axon, 
Hon. LL.D.). No. 69 (Beport for Year 1905-1906.) No, 60 (Education 
of a Curator, by W. E. Hoyle, M.A., D.Sc.). 

Manchester. Textile Becorder. 1906, Nos. 273-284. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne. Tyneside Geographical Society. Journal. (Nothing 
received.) 

Newcastle-on-Tyne. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical 
Engineers. Transactions. Vols. LV., Nos. 5, 6; LVI., Nob. 1, 2, 3; 
LVII., No. 1. Annual Beport for the year 1905-1906. 

Oxford. Geographical Association. The Geographical Teacher. No. 14, 
Vol. III., Part 4. 

Penzance. Boyal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions. Vol. 
XIII., Part 1; Vol. XIII., Part 2. 

Plymouth. Plymouth Institution and Devon and Cornwall Natural History 
Society. Annual Beport and Transactions. (Nothing received.) 

Bochdale. Literary and Scientific Society. Transactions. (Nothing 
received.) 

St. Leonards-on-Sea. Highbury House School. The Thistle. 1906, XXXI., 
Nos. 1-4. 

Salford. Museum, Libraries, and Parks Committee. Fifty-eighth Annual 
Beport, 1905-6. 

Southampton. Geographical Society. (Nothing received.) 

York. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Beport for 1905. 



MISSIONABY. 

Freiburg-in-Breisgau. Die Katliolischen Missionen (illustrated). 1906, 
January to December. 

London. Baptist Missionary Society. Missionary Herald. 1906, January 
to April. 

London. British and Foreign Bible Society. 102nd Beport, 1906. 
"There is a Biver." A Popular Illustrated Beport of the British and 
Foreign Bible Society for the year 1905-6. 

London. Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East. Beport of 
Proceedings. 107th year, 1905-1906. 

London. Church Missionary Intelligencer. 1906, January to December. 

London. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Greater Britain 
Messenger. 1906, January to December. 

London. London Missionary Society. 111th Beport for the year ending 
March 31«^t, 1906. r- ^ -s 

London. Illustrated Catholic Missions. 1906, February to December. 

London. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. 
Beport for the year 1905. 

London. Universities Mission to Central AfHc». "Central Africa." 1906, 
January to December. 



List of Exchangee. 167 

Lrondon. United Methodist Free Church. Missionary Echo. 1906, 
January to December. 

Mangalore. Basel German Evangelical Mission in South-We&tem India. 
66th Report, 1905. 



COLONIAL. 

Adelaide. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, South Australian 
Branch. Proceedings. Sessions 1904-05, 1905-06, Vol. YIII. 

Brisbane. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch. 
(Nothing received.) 

Brisbane. Queensland Museum. Annals. (Nothing received.) 
Brisbane. Department of Mines. Geological Survey of Queensland. Nos. 
201, 202, 203, 205. 

Bulawayo. Rhodesia Scientific Association. Proceedings. 1905, Vol. V., 
Parts 2, 3; 1906, Vol. VI., Part 1. 

Cape Town. South African Philosophical Society. Transactions. Vol. 
XVI., Parts 3, 4. 

Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions. 
(Nothing received.) 

Melbourne. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Victorian Branch. 
Victoria Geographical Journal. (Nothing received.) 

Melbourne. Victorian Statistical Department. Year Book, 1906. 

Perth. Western Australia. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Nos. 21, 22. 

Port Moresby. Annual Report of British New Guinea for the year ending 
30th June, 1905. 

Quebec. Geographical Society. (Nothing received.) 

Sydney. Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. New South Wales 
Branch. (Nothing received.) 

Sydney. Department of Mines, New South Wales. Annual for the year 
1905. Records. Vol. XVIII., Part II. (See list of Maps.) 

Sydney. New South Wales, Department of Mines and Agriculture. 
Geological Survey. Mineral Resources, No. 11. 

Toronto. Canadian Institute. (Nothing received.) 

Victoria. Department of Mines. Province of British Columbia. Annual 
Report for the year ending December 31st, 1905. 

Wellington. Department of Lands and Survey. New Zealand. Reports 
for the year 1905-6. C-1, General Report; C-1a, Surveys; C-1b, State 
Forests. 



FOREIGN. 

Alger. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1905, No. 4; 1906, Nos. 1, 2. 

twerp. Socidte Royi 
XXlX., Fascicule 4. 



Antwerp. Socidte Royale de Geographie d'Anvers. Bulletin. Tome 



168 Tlte Jourmd of the MancJiester Geographical Society. 

Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Uni>'er3ity. Studies in Historical and Political 
Science. Series XXIII., Nos. 11, 12; XXIV. Nos. 1, 2, 5-10. Circulars. 
1905, No. 9; 1906, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9. 

Baltimore. Maryland Geolog^ical Survey. Wm. -Bullock Clark, State 
Geologist. (Nothing received.) 

Ber^mo. Bi vista Mensile Illustrata D'Arte-Letteratura Sciense e Varieti. 
Emporium. 1906, Nos. 133-144. 

Berkeley. University of California. Publications. Department of 
American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol, IV., No^. 1, 2. Geology. 
Vol. IV, Nos. 14, 15, 17, 18. Sfoology. Vol. III., Nos, 2, 3, 4. 
Physiology. Vol. III., No. 7. College of Agriculture. Agricultural 
Experimental Station. Bulletin. Noe. 177, 178. The University 
Chronicle, an Official Record. Vol. VIII., No. 3. 

Berlin. Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Zeitschrift. 1906, Nos. 1-10. 

Berlin. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung. Organ der Deutschen Kolonial- 
gesellschaft. 1906, Nos. 1-52. 

Bern. Geographische Gresellschaft. Jahresbericht. (Nothing received.) 

Bordeaux. Societe de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 
1-24. 

Boston, U.S.A. State Library of Massachusetts. (Nothing received.) 

Boston, U.S.A. Public Library of the City of Bostcm. Monthly Bulletin. 
Vol. XI., Nos. 1-12. Annual List of New and Important Books, 1904- 

1905. 54th Annual Report, 1905-6. 

Bourg. Societe de Geographie de TAin. (Nothing received.) 

Bremen. Deutsche Geographische Geeellschaft. Blatter. Band XXIX., 
Heft 1-4. 

Brest. Soci6te Academique de Brest. Section de Geographie. (Nothing 
received.) 

Brussels. L'Et^t Independent du Congo. Bulletin Officiel. 1906, January- 
December. 

Brussels. Societe Royale Beige de Geographie. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 1-6. 
Brussels. Le Mouvement Geographique. 1906, Noe. 1-52. 

Brussels. La Belgique Maritime and Coloniale. Journal Hebdomadaire. 

1906, January 1st to December Slst. 

Brussels. Institut Colonial Internationale. 8me Scrie. Les Lois 
Organiques des Colonies. Tomes 1-3. 

Brussels. Societe d'Etudes Coloniales. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 1-12. 

Brussels. Universite Nouvelle, Institut Geoirraphique de Bruxelles. 
(See List of Books.) © r h 

Budapest. Society Hongroise de Geographie. Bulletin. Vol XXXIV.. 
Nos. 1-10. Resultate der Wiflsenschaftlichen Exforschung des Balaton- 
seee. Vol. I., Parts 3, 4: II., 1, 2; III., 1, 2, 5. Topographif»cher und 
Geologischer Atlas (Balatonsee). "nieil 1. 

Buenos Aires. Instituto Geografico Argentine. (Nothing received.) 

Buenos Aires. Oficina Demografica Nacional. Boletin Demografico Argen- 
tino. Ano VI.. No. 13, Jan.-Dec., 1905. 



List of ExchaTiges. 169 

Buenos Airea. Muaeo Nacional de Buenos Aires. (Nothings received.) 

Buenos Aires. Yillo de ^Buenos Aires. Annuaire Statistique. 1905, XYme, 
Ajinee. (See Liist of Books.) 

Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin of Municipal Statistics. 1906, Noe. 1-10. 

Cairo. SociSte Khedeviale de Geographie. Bulletin. Series YI., No. 10. 

Cambridge. Peabody Museum of American Archsdology and Ethnology. 
Harvard University. Papers. Yol. III., No. 4; lY., 2. 

Cassel. Yerein fur Erdkunde. (Nothing received.) 

Christiania. Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. (See List of Maps.) 

Copenhagen. Geografisk Tidskrift udgivet af Beetyrelsen for det Kongo- 
lige danske Geografisk Selskab. Bind XYIII., Heft 5-8. 

Darmstadt. Yerein fur Erdkunde. Notizblatt. Folge lY., Heft 26. 

Dijon. Societe Bourguignonne de Geographie et d'Histoire. Memoires. 
Tome XXI. 

Douai. Union Geographique du Nord de la France. (Nothing received.) 

Dresden. Yerein fur Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1906, Heft 1, 2. Mit- 
glieder-Yerzeichnis, April, 1906. Gesamt-Begfister der Jahresberichte, 
1863-1901. 

Dunkerque. Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 1906, No. 30; 1906, 31. 

Firenze (Florence). Revista Geografica Italiana. Bollettino. Annate 
XIII., Fasacoio 1-10. 

Firenze (Florence). L'Opinione Geografica. Ri vista di Geografia Didat- 
tica. 1906, Nos. 1-12. 

Frankfurt. Yerein fiir Geographie und Statistik. (Nothing received.) 

Geneva. Le Globe. Organe de la Societe de Geographie. Bulletin. 
Tome XLY., Nos. 1, 2, and Memoires. 

Geneva. Societe des Anciens Eleves de I'Ecole Superieure. Bulletin. Nos. 
71-74. 

Giessen. Geographische Mitteilungen aus He&sen. (Nothing received.) 

Griefswald. Geographische Gesellschaft zu Griefdwald. (Nothing received.) 

Gutemala. Direccion General de Estadistica. (Nothing received.) 

Halle. Yerein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1906. 

Halle. Eaiserlichen Leopoldinisch Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie der 
Naturforscher. Abhandlungen. Yol. LXXX., Nos. 1, 2. Leopoldina. 
Parts XXX. -XLI. 

Hamburg. Gec^graphische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen. Band XXI. 

Hamburg. Horizontalpendel Station. Dr. B. Schiitt. Mittheilun^n. 
1906, Nos. 3-7. " Die Haupstation fiir Erdbenforschun? am Physika- 
lischen Staatslaboratorium zu Hamburg," von Dr. R. Schiitt. 

Hannover. Geographische Gesellschaft. (Nothing received.) 

Havre. Soci^e de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1905, No. 2; 
1906, No. 1. 

Havre. Societe Geologique de Normandie. Bulletin. 1905, Yol. XXY. 



170 The Journal ot ttie Manchester Geographical Society. 

Helfiingffors. Soci^^ de Geographie de Finlande. Femnia, 19-22. 

Helsingfors. Meddelanden af G«ografi8cka Foreningen. 1901-1906, Vol. 
VII. 

Hermannstadt. Siebenbiirgischen (Transylvanian) Karpatheinvereiii. 

(Nothing received.) 

Irkutsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. East Siberian Section. 
(Nothing received.) 

Jena. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. (Not received.) Das 
Heutige Mexiko. (See list of Books.) 

Kazan. Naturalists' Society of the Imperial University. Journal. Vol. 
XXX VIII., Nos. 4, 5, 6. 

Eonigsberg. Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft. Schriften. 1901, 
Vol. XLV.; 1905, XLVI. 

La Paz. Sociedad Geografica de la Paa. (Nothing received.) 

La Paz. Oficina Nacional de Immigracion, Estadlstica y Propaganda 
Geografica. Revista del Ministerio de Colonizacion y Agncuitura. 
1905, No. 4; 1906, No. 1. " Estudio sobre la Climatologia de La Pac.*' 
** Memoria que presenta el Ministro de Colonizaci6n y Agricnltura al 
Congreso ordinario de 1906." 

La Plata. Direccion General de Eetadistica de la Provincia de Buenoe 
Aires. Boletin Mensual. 1906, Nos. 66-68. Demografia, AAo 1899. 

La Plata. Muiseo de La Plata. Revista. Tomo XI. 

La Plata. Publicaciones de la Universidad de La Plata. (Nothing- 
received.) 

Leipzic. Verein ftlr Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1903, Heft II., Katalo|^ 
der Bibliothek des Vereins. 1906. 

Lille. Societe de G^graphie. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 1-12. 

Lima. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tomo XVII., Noe. 3, 4. Memoria 
Anual y Anexos, 1904. Tomo XVI. Indigenas e Immigraates en le 
Peru. (2 Maps.) 

Lima. Cuerpo de Ingenieres de Minas del Pern. Documentos Oficiales. 
Nos. 29-46. Secunda Memoria que presenta el Director, 1904-1905. 

Lisbon. Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. Boletim. Serie XXIV., 
Nos. 1-12. 

Louvain. Zoological Institute, University of Louvain. (Nothing received.) 

Ltibeck. Geographische Gesellschaft und Naturhistorische Museums. 
Mitteilungen. Heft 21. 

Lwowie (LemburgJ. Polskugo Towarzystwa Handlowo-Geogfraficzna we 
Lwowie. (Nothing receiv^. 

Lwowie (Lemburg). Towarzystwa Ludozonawezego we Lwowie. Lud. 
XII., 1-4. 

Madison. Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters. (Nothing 
received.) 

MadiHon. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin. 
No. XIV. 

Madrid. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tome XLVIII., Nos. 1-4. 
Revista, Nos. 10-16. 



List of Exchangee. 171 

Madrid. Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Estadistica Demogfra£ca. 1906, 
January to March, May. Boletin. Nos. 470-522. 

Magdeburg. Museum fiir Natur-uud Heimatkunde. Abhandlungen und 
Berichte. Band I., Heft 1-3. 

Marseille. Society de G^ographie. Bulletin. Tome XXIX., No6. 2-4,; 
XXX., No. 1. 

Meti. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht XXV., 1905-1906. 

Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica " Antonio Alzate." Memoriae y Bevista. 
Tomo XXII., Nos. 7, 8; XXIII., 1-4. 

Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. (Nothing 
received.) 

Milan. L'Esplorazione Commerciale. Vol. XXI., Nos. 1-24. 

Miasoula (Montana). University of Montana. University Bulletin. No9. 
30, 32, 34, 35, 37. 

Montevideo. Museo Nacional. Anales. Vol. VI. Flora Uruguaya. Tomo 
III., Entrega 1. 

Montevideo. Boletin Mensual de Estadistica Municipal del Departamento 
de Montevideo. (Nothing received.) 

Montpellier. Societe Lang^edocienne de Geographic. Bulletin. Vol. 
XXVIII., No. 4; XXIX., 1, 2. G6ographie G^nerale du Dfepartement 
de r Herault. Tome III. Histoire Generale. He Fasicule, Antiquites 
et Monuments. 

Moscow.. Geographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural Science 
of the University. (Nothing received.) 

Munich. Geographischen Gresellschaft, Mitteilungen. Erster Band, Heft 4. 

Nancy. Society de G^raphie de TEst. Bulletin. 1906, No. 4; 1906» 
Nos. 1, 2. 

Nantes. Society de Geographic. Bulletin. Annee, 1905. 

Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia. BoUettino. Vol. XXV., Nos. 1-12. 

Neuchatel. Societe Neuchateloise de Geographic. (Nothing received.) 

New York. American Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XXXVIII., 
Nos. 1-12. 

New York. American Bureau of Geography. (Nothing received.) 

New York. American Museum of Natural History. Memoirs. Vol. IX., 
Parts 2, 3. 37th Annual Report. 1905. 

New York. The Journal of Geography. Vol. V., Nos. 1-10. 

New York. Public Library (Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundation). 
Bulletin. Vol. X., Nos. 1-11. 

Nurnberg. Naturhistorische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen. Band XV., 
Heft III. Jahresbericht fiir 1904. 

Odessa. Club Alpin de Crimee. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 1-12. 

Omsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. West Siberian Branch. 
(Nothing received.) 

Oran. Societe de Geographic et d'Archeologie. Bulletin TrimestrieL 
1906, Tome XXVI., No?. 106-109. 



172 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

Para (Brazil). Mueeo Paraense de Historia Natural e Ethnographia. 
Memoriae. Vol. IV., No. 4, March, 1906. Aboratum Amaconicum, 
Decades 3, 4. 

Paris. Soci6t4 de Geographie. "La Geographic." Tome XII., Noa. 5, 6; 
Xni., 1-6; XIV., 1. 

Paris. Society de Geographie Commerciale. Bulletin. Tome XXVIII., 
No6. 1-12. 

Paris. Soci^te de Speleologie. Spelunca. Tome VI., Nob. 44-46. 

Paris. Soci6t4 de Topographie. Bulletin. Tome XXIX., Nos. 10-12; 
XXX., 1-6. 

Paris. Comity de TAfrique Fran^aise. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 1-12. Les 
Benseignements Coloniaux, Nos. 1-12. 

Paris. Service G^ographique et dee Missions da Ministere des Colonies. 
Revue Coloniale. New Series. Nos. 40, 44. 

Paris. Statistique Municipale. Ville de Paris. (Nothing received.) 

Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. XLV., 
Nos. 182, 183. Becord of Franklin Bi-Centennial Celebration. (See 
li&t of Books.) 

Philadelphia. Commercial Museum. (Nothing received.) 

Philadelphia. Geographical Society. Bulletin. 1906, January to October. 

Philadelphia. The Department of Archnology, Free Museum of Science 
and Art, University of Pennsylvania. Transactions. Vol. II., Part 1. 

Prague. Socicte de Geographic tcheque a Prague. (Nothing received.) 

Rochefort. Socicte de Geographie. Bulletin. 1905, Nos. 3, 4; 1906, 
Nos. 1, 2. 

RoUa, Mo. Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Second Series. Vols. 
III., IV. 

Roma. Societii Geografica Italiana. Bollettino. Vol. VII., Nos. 1-12. 

Presented by Signor Luioi Bodio. 

Rome. Institute Internationale de Statistique. Bulletin. Vol. XV., Part 2. 

Rome. Bollettino dcir Emigrasione. 1906, Nos. 1-16. 

Rome. Statistica Industriale. Riassunto delle Notizie sulle Condizioni 
Industrial! del Regno. Parte I.-III. 

Rome. Statistica della Emigrazione Italiana per L'Estero. Negli anni. 

Rome. Emigrazione e Colonic. Vol. II., Asia- Africa-Oceania. 

Rome. Censimento della Popolazione del Regno d'ltalia. 

Rome. Movimento della Popolazione Secondo Gli Atti dello Stato Civile 
Nell' Anno 1904. 



Rome. Instituto Cartografica Italiana. (Nothing received.) 

Rouen. Socicte Normaade de G^raphie. Bulletin. 1905, October to 
December. 



List of Excluinges. 173- 

San Francisco. Southern Pacific Railway. " Sunset." Vol. XVI., Nob. 
3-6; XVII.. Nob. 1-4; XVIII., Noe. 1, 2. 

San Francisco. Geographical Society of the Pacific. (Nothing received.) 

San Francisco. Geographical Society of California. (Nothing received.) 

San Jo9^. Institute Fisoo Geografico de Cotsta Rica. (Nothing received.) 

San Salvardor. Observatorio Astrondmico y Meteor616gfico. (Nothing 
received.) 

Santa-Fe. Municipalidad de Santa Fe. Oficina d« Estadistica. Boletin. 
1906, Nos. 18, 20. Anuario Estadistico de la Ciudad de Santa Fe. Afio 
II., 1905. 

St. Nazaire. Soci^te de Geographic. (Nothing received.) 

St. Petersburg. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. 
XLII., Nos. 1, 2, 3. 

Santiago (Chill). Deutsche Wissenschaftlichen Vereins Verhandlungen. 
(Nothing received.) 

Shanghai. Imperial Maritime Cuflix>ms. China. I., Statistical Series; 
No. 2, Customs Gazette, No. 149; Nos. Sand 4, Parts 1 and 2 (Vols. 1-5), 
Returns of Trade and Trade Report^s for 1905; Part 3, Reports and 
Statistics for each port (Vols. 1, 2). 

Stettin. Gescllflchaft fur Volker-u-Erdkunde. Bericht, 1905-1906. 

Stockholm. Svenska Sallakapet for Antropologi och Geografi. Tmer. 
1906, 1-4. 

Stuttgart. Wurtembergische Vereins fiir Handel sgeographie. (Nothing 
received.) 

Tokyo. Geographical Society. Journal. Vol. XVIII., Nos. 205-210. 

Toulouse. Society de G^ographie. Bulletin. 1905, Nos. 3, 4; 1906, No. 1. 

Tours. Soci^te de Geogrmphie. Revue. 1906, Vol. XXIII., Nos. 1, 2. 

Upeala. Geological Institution of the University of Upsala. Meddelanden. 
Nos. 29, 30. Bulletin. Vol. VII., Nos. 13, 14. 

Vienna. K. £. Geographische Gesellechaft. Mittheilungen. Vol. 
XLIX., Nos. 1-10. 

Vienna. Verein der Geographen an der K. E. Universitat in Wien. 
Bericht uber das XXIX. und XXX. Vereinsjahr (1902-3 und 1903-4> 
und G^eographischer Jahresbericht aus Osterreich. IV., Jahrgang. 

Vienna. K. K. Naturhistoriches Hofmuseum. Annalen. Band XX., 
Noe. 1-4. 

Washington. National Geogfraphic Society. Magazine. Vol. XVII., Nos. 
1-12. 

Washington. United States Department of Commerce and Labour. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey. Report for the year ending June 30th, 1905> 
and Appendix No. 3. Rep«nrt for the year ending .Mine 30th, 1906, and 
Appendices Nos. 3, 4. 

Washington. United States Geological Survey.. C. D. Walcott, Director. 
26th Annual Report, 1904-5. Mineral Resources of the United States,. 
1904. 



174 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 

Washington. United States Geological Survey. Monographs. Vol. 
XXXII. (Atlas.) 

Washington. United States Geological Survey. Professional Papers. 
Noe. 4a45, 47-51, 55. (See list of Books.) 

W^ashington. United States Geological Survey. Bulletins. Nos. 265, 269, 
272-275, 277, 278, 280-285, 288-283, 298, 301. (See list of Books.) 

Washington. United States Geological Survey. Water Supply and Irriga- 
tion Papers. Nos. 148, 150, 153-160. 162-181, 186. (See hat of Books.) 

Washing^n. Smithsonian Institution. (Nothing received.) 

Washington. United States National Museum. Report for the year 
ending June 30th, 1904. 

AVashington. United States Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau. 
Report of the Chief for 1904-1905. 

Washington. United States Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau. 
Monthly Weather Review. 1905, Annual Summary; 1906, January to 
October. .Bulletin P. Bulletin Q. (See List of Books.) 

Washington. United States Board on Geographic Names. (Nothing 
received.) 

Washington. United States War Department. Military Information 
Division. (Nothing received.) 

Washington. United States Bureau of Education. Report of the Commis- 
sioner of Education for the year ending June 30th, 1904. Vols. I., II. 



THE MUSEUM. 
ACCESSIONS. 

Opium-smoker's Outfit: 4 Vessels, 2 Mouthpieces, 2 Knives, 1 Pair of 
Scissors, and 1 Opium Jar. *M.t. Charles Roeder. 

Ten Coloured Pictures given to Worshippers at Wu Tai Shan. *Profes50r 
R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Copies of Famous Chinese Writings. *Profes8or R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Chinese Carved Frame. *Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Chinese Counting Frame. *Profos»or R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Two Chintz Combs. *Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

A Pair of Lady's Shoes (Chinese). *Professof R. W. Swallow, B.Sc 

A Pack of Chinese Playing Cards. *Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

A Chinese Menu. *Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Invitation Ticket to the Shansi University Sports. China *Professor 
R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

A Book on Trigonometry ((Chinese). *Profes8ar R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Chinese Opium Pipe. *Profe8SD:' R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 



The Museunu 175 

Chinese Opium Jar. *Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Two Poppy Heads (Opium) China. *Profeasor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Chinese Beads. *Profe85or R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

Samples of Millet and other Grasses (Seeds, etc.), grown in China 
♦Professor R. W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

A Small Animal (Horse) used by Chinese Children. *Profe8Sor R. W. 
Swallow, B.Sc. 

Cotton Pods from the United States. *Mr. Isaac Chorlton. 

Cop of Cotton (showing Method of Winding). *Mr. Isaac Chorlton. 

Samples of Bog Earth, Compressed for Fuel, from Boston. ♦Mr. Thoman 
Ha worth, of Burnley. 

A Pod of Brazil Nuts or Shoe Nuts. (With full description.) *Mr. G. H. 
Warren. 

Snake Skin. *Mr. J. Howard Reed. 



176 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 



LIST OF MEMBERS. 

December Sltt, 1906. 

Note. — H signifies Honorary, C — Corresponding, L — Life, A — Associate, 
Societies. AH others are Ordinary Members. 



Affiliated 



Abbott, James H. 

Adam, Sir Frank Forbes, CLE. 
LAinsworth, John, C.M.G. (Nairobi) 

Alexander, Bernard 

Alexander, W. T., J.P. 
HArgyll, His Gi-aoe the Duke of, K.T. 

Armistead, Richard 

Armstrong, F. 

Arning, A. W. 

Arnold, W. A. 

Ascoli, E. 

Ashman, Edwin 

Ash worth, Francis, J.P. 
AAshworth, Miss M. L. 

Ashworth, Wm., F.C.A. 



Balmer, J. E., F.R.G.S. 
LBalmforth, Alfred 

Bardsley, G. W. 

Barlow, John R., J.P. 

Bamingham, James 

Barningham, Thomas 

Baronian, Z. S. Iplicjian 
ABaxandall, Miss C. 
ABayley, Mrs. C. H. 

Beer, Walter 

Behrens, Councillor Charles 

Behrens, Gustav, J.P. 

Behrens, Oliver P. 
HBelgians, His Majesty the King of the, 

K.G. 
cBellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S., Tourcoing 
ABellamy, Basil G. 

Bennie, Andrew 

Bentley, Miss R. 

Bentley, John Howard, F.R.G.S. 

Benton, John 

iierry, R. H. 
ABickerton, Richard 

Black, Surgeon-Major W. G., F.R.C.S.K. 

Blake, George Ingle 

BUke, John Charles, F.R.G.S. 
ABlanchoud, Mdlle. 
ABleloch, W. 

Bles, A. J. S. 

Bles, Marcus S., J.P. 
LBoddington, Henry, J.P. 
cBodio, Professor Luigi, Rome 
ABolivar, Mrs. A de 
A Bolivar, Miw G. de 
H Bonaparte, S. A. Prince Roland, Paris 

Bornmiiller, Rudolph 
ABosworth, George R. 

Bowes, George T. 



Bradley, N., J.P. 

Bradshaw, Wm. 

Bramwell, Samuel 
cBrice, A. Montefiore, F.R.G.S. 

Bridge, Alfred 

Brier, Charles 
LBrierley, James, B. A., F.R G S. 

Briggs, Herbert 

Bntten, S. 

Broadhurst, E. Tootal, D.L., J.P. 

Brooks, J. B. Close 
LBrooks, Mrs. S. H. 
LBrooks. S. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Broome, Henry 

Broome, Joseph, J.P. 

Brownrigg, W. F. 

Brown, R. Hope, Carlisle 

Brumm, Charles 

Bryant, James 
cBryoe, J. Annan, M.P. 

Buckley. W. H., J.P. 

Burgon, Councillor Anthony 
•BuiTiley Literary and Scientific Club 

Burton, Frank 
I. Burton, Frederic 
A Burton, R. Graham 

Butterworth, Coundllor Walter, J.P. 

Bythell, J. K., J.P. 



Calcutta, Imperial Library 

Calvert. D. R. 

Campbell, Richardson 
ACardwell J. J. 
ACareswell, George 

Carson, Isaac Pitman 
LCarver, W. Oswald 

Chapman, Wm. 

Cheetham, J. F., M.P. 

Child, J. 

Chorlton, Isaac 

Chorlton, James 

Choriton, J. C, J.P. 

Churchill, Wm. W., junr. 

Clapham, Col W. W. 
AClarke, Charies A. 

Cocks, John 
ACohen, Meyer 
cColbeck, Rev. A. 
LCoUey, T. H. Davies- 
ACoUinge, Miss A. 

Collmann, C, Consul for the German 
Empire 
cColquhoun, A. R., F.R.G.S., M.LC.E. 

Col liver, Peter 



List of Members. 



177 



Congo State, M. le Secretaire Geueral, 

Department de Tlnterieur 
Cook, George T. 
LCooper, Mrs. A. H. 
Core, ProfesBor T. H., M.A. 
Cox, Dr. Frederic. 
Crawford, Wm. L. 
Crewdaou, Alfred 
Cromptou, Thos. A. 
Crook, Col. H. T.. J.P., C.E. 
Croasley, W. J., M.P. 
Crowther, Miss E., Altriucham 

Dann, E. W., B.A., F.R.G.S. 

Darby, Rev. R. D. 
ADavies, Charles. J. 

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, J.P., M.A., 
F.R.S. 
A Dawson, Charles 

Dawson, T. Kyle 

Deakin, Edward, juu. 
ADeakin, G. G. D. 

Deakin, Thos. S. 

Dean, Councillor J. 

Dennis, Cammack 

Deniith, Mrs. T., Dobcross 

Derby, The Rt Hon. the Earl of, K.Q. 

Devonshire, His Grace the Duke of, K.G. 

Donnell, Joseph 

Donner, Edwai'd 
ADowdall, J. B. 
LDoxey, Alex. 

Duckworth, Charles 

Duckworth, Alderman James, M.P,, 
F.R.G.S. 

Dutton, Thomas 

Eamshaw, Jacob, F.S.A.A. 

Eamshaw, John A. 

Eason, Edward A. 
*Eccle8 Prov. Ind. Co-op, Soc, Ltd, 

Eckersley, William 

Kgerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. the. 
Earl 

EUinger, Martin 

Engliuid, A. 
LEi-men, Charles 

Eubank, Rev. R. 

Eustace, Rev. Alfred, M.A. 

Evans, E. Russell 

Fairhurst, Mrs. 

Farmer, R. J. 
•Famworth-with-Kearsley P.C.M.I. Sy. 

Feber, Harold 
cFedotofi^ A., Moscow 

Ferguson, Wm. 

Fern, George 
cFiet J> du. Royal Belgian Geographical 
Society 

Finnigan, Wm., junr. 
cFisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S. \ 

Fletcher, R. 

Follows, F. W. 



Fooks, C. F. 

Forsyth. Henry 

Franc, Henry 

Frank, Ernest 

Frankenburg, Alderman I. (His Worship 
the Mayor of Salford) 
AFreeman, W. C. 
HFreshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 

Fuller, A. Walton, M.A., B.Sc. 

Gadd, The Rt» Rev. Monsignor CanoD, 
V.G. 

Gaddum, G. H., J.P. 

Galloway, George, J.P. 

Galloway, W. Johnson, J.P, 
AGarner, Charles T. I. 

Gamett, Stewart, J.P. 

Geiler, H. 

Gibson, Alderman R., J.P, 

Ginger, George 

Gleave, Joseph James 

Glossop, J. P. B. 

Godbert, Chas. W. 

Godlee, Francis 

Goetz, Edward 

HGoldsmid, Major-Geueral Sir Frederic J. 
C.B., F.R.G.S. 

Goodbehere, Frederick G. 

Goodwin, Alfred 

Gordon, T. Hodgetts, B.A., C.C. 
AGreenough, Ricl^rd, Leigh 
AGreenwood, Alderman Jas., J.P. 

Greg, Major Ernest W., J.P., CO., 
F.R.G.S. 

Gregory, Theodore, F.C.A. 

Griffiths, Alderman John 

Griffiths, J. W. 
LGroves, J. G., J.P. 
LGroves, W. G., J.P. 

Gudgeon, Robert 

Gunson, W. Telford, C.E. 

Guterbock, Richard 

Hacking, Nicholas H., J.P. 

Hadfield, George, J.P. 

Hadfield, Geoi-ge 

Hailwood, Councillor Anthony, J.P. 

Hailwood, J. A. 

Hall, James, J.P. 
LHall, J. Howard, Bury 
cHallett, Holts., M.LC.E., F.R.G.Si 

Hallman, E. H. 

Hallworth, Joseph 

Hamp, E. H. 

Hampson, James 
AHandoock, H. C. 

cHanlon, Rt Rev. Henry, Bishop of Teos, 
and Vicar Apostolic of the Upper 
NUe 

Hardcastle, G. L. 

Hardman, John, Radcliffe 

Hargreaves, George 
AHarker, George 
A Harper, William 



178 The Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society. 



Harris, Mrs. Isabella M. 

Harris, Thomas 

Harrison, J. Dilworth 

HaiTop, G. A. 

Hassall, Councillor Thomas, J P. 

Hawkins, William 

Haworth, G. C, J.P. 

Haworth, J. F., J.P. 

Haworth, Thos. 

Haworth, W., J.P., Accrington 

Haze, Geo. A. 

Healej, Councillor D. fHia Worship the 
Mavor of Hevwootl) 
LHealey, VV.. J.P., 

Heap, Frederick 

Heap, Alderman, W. T. J. P., Rochdale 

Helm, S. L. 

Hennques, D. Q. 
cHerbei-tson, A. J., M.A., Ph.D., Oxford 

Herford, Miss C. 

Hering, M. G. 

Hesketh, W. R. 
AHewit. R. P. 
LHeys, John 

Hey wood, Abel, J.P. 

Hicks, George 

Hiersemann, K. W., Leipzig 

Higham, J. Sharp, M.P. 
*Highbury House School, St. Leonards- 
on-Sea 

Hilton, John S. 

Hindle, James, L.R.A.M. 

Hinrichsen, S. 
Hockin, C. Owen 
Hodgson, William 
AHolden. Henrv 
HoUand, Sir W. H., M.P. 
AHollingworth, Edgar 
Hopkinson, A., Q.C. (The Vice-Chan- 

cellor of Victoria University) 
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc 
Hoi-sfall, T. C, J.P. 
Houghton, John 
Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart. 
Hov, Alderman Sir Ja?., J.P. 
Hoyle, E. 
Hoyle, W. E., M.A. 
Hoyten, Wm. J., M.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 
Hughes, Joseph David 
Hulton, Edward 
LHutton, J. Arthur 
Hutton, R. W. 

lUingworth, Charles 
Ingham, A. J. 
Ingram, Matthew 

Jackson, Andrew 
Jackson, Fred J. 
AJackson, William 
Janus, H. 

Jenkins, Alderman T. H., J.P. 
Johnson, E. 
Johnson, Jamcj* 



Johnson, Lionel M. 
cJohnston, Sir H. H., F.R.G.S 
Johnstone, Charles Andrew 
Jone8, Frederick A. 
Joueri, R. Loma.<» 
Jones, Wm., J.P. 
Joynson, R. H., J.P. 
Jucker, J. 

Kalisch, M. 
AKay, Miss Katie 
cKeiffer, F., Moscow 

Keller, J. Macphersou 

Kennedy, A. J., F.R.G.S. 

Kerahaw, B*. 

Eessler, Henry 

Kessler, William 

Kevmer, Sidney L., F.R.G.S. 

Kiich, W. S. 

Kirki)atrick, Henry, J.P. 

Kollig3, F. H., Consul tor Ecuador 

Kolp, N. 

Kullmann, Julius 

Laidlaw, Adam 
ALaing, Wallace 
A Lancaster, James 

Langley, H. M., Consul for Hondur&i 
and Salvador 
LLanyon, James, J.P. 
ALaw, Miss Annie E., L.L.A. 
ALaw, T. H. 

LawBon, R. G. 
ALa>\-ton, Miss Emma 

Lea, Miss, M.A. 

Lea, Dr. Arnold W. W. 
ALedward, H. Davenport 

Leech, Alderman Sir Bosdin T., J.P. 
A Leech, Miss 
cLeech, Wm. Booth 
ALeeman, E. 

Lees, Walter 

Leigh, James 

Leigh, Sir Joseph, J.P. 
•Leigh Litei-ary Society 
LLemos, Professor Angel Ma Diaz 

Lewis, J. Tetlow, J.P. 

Little, David A ins worth 

Littler, Henry Landon 

Logan, John 

Lomas, J. A. 

Lord, Charles 

Lord, W. C. 

Luke, Robert 

McAdam. John 
Macai-a, C. W., J.P. 
McDermott, Rev. P. A.. C.S.Sp. 
HMacdonald, Lieut-Col. Sur J.R.L., R.E. 
McDougall, Alderman A., J.P. 
McDougall, I. S., F.R.G.S. 
McFarlane, H. H. 

McFarlane, John, M.A., Victoria Univer- 
sitv 



List of Members, 



179 



HMcFarUne, Rev. S., LL.D. 
HMacGregor, H. E. Sir Wm., M.D., 
K.C.M.G. 

McNicol, A. 

Wagian, Anthony C, M.D., F.R.G.S. 

Magson, John 

Makfn, E., junr, 
•Manchester Corpoi-ation, Free Libraries 
Committee 

Mandleberg, G. C, J. P. 

Mandleberg, S. L. 
cMarrs, F. W., M.A., Bombay 
LMarsden, James, J.P. 

Martin, Horace C, F.R.G.S. 

Marx, Charles 
AMassey, Samuel 
AMather, John 

Mather, Sir William, J.P. 

Matliibou, Mias 

May, Wm. 
AMavbury, J. H. 
AMaVbury, W. H. 

Mazzebach, C. 

Mehl. F. 
LMellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Michaelis, R. N. 

Middleton, T. C.,J.P. 

Midgley, Alfred 

MilU)ume, J. Parker 

Millers, R. T. 

Milligan, Wm., M.B., CM. 

Milne, J. D., J.P. 

Milnes, C. B. 

Mitchell, C. H. 
HMoloney, H. E. Sir Alfred, G.C.M.G. 
HMorgan, E. Delmar, F.R.G.S. 

Morris, John Alfred 
aMo!», Miss M. A. 

Moxou, Thomas Bouchier 

MurtoD, T. P., Landon 

HNansen, Dr. F. 
LXeil, Alexander 

Neild, Jesse 

NeUl, Robert, J.P. 
ANewbigging, Thos., C.E. 
ANightingale, W. H. 

Noar, H. 

Norbury, George 

Norquoy, Alderman William 

Nunan, Thomas Joseph 

NutUll, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S. 

Nuttall, Mrs. Harry 

Ogden, J. T. 
♦Oldham Corporation, Free Libraries 
Committee 

Oldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S. 
cO'Neill, H. E., H.B.M. Consul 

Oppenheim, F.S. 

Opf>enheim, Siegmund, J. P., Vice- Consul 
for Austria-Hungary 

Oram, Mrs. 

Orr, Dr. J. 



I Parkinson, J. B. 
j APayton, F. J. 
I Pearson, George 
I Pearson, Thomas 
! Peel, Hon. W. R. W. 
I APetei's, Ralph 
Philips, Miss 
' Phillips, R. C. 
! Pilcher, Colonel Jesse, V.D. 
I LPilkington, Edward, J.P. 
I Pilkingtou, Lawrence, J.P, 

cPingstone, G. A. 
Pingstone, H. C. 
, Pidd, Arthur J. 
I Pidd, EU 

APidd, Mrs. Eli 
I A Pidd, Miss Mairgie 

I LPorter, Rev. Canon W. C, M.A., East 
Africa 
Preston, H. 
; Price, Hy. LL, F.S.A.A. 
I Proctor, Mrs. 
' A Proctor, Miss 
' Prussman, Robert Henry 

I ARadcliffe, F. 
! Ramsay, P. J. 

ARawlinson, Miss Maud 

Reade, Charles E. 
j ARedman, Rev. A., M.A., Hey wood 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S. 
I Rees, Rev. F. A. 
I Reid, James S. 
LReiss, Alec 

Renshaw, James 
ARenshaw, Miss L. W. 

Reynolds, R. H. 

Rejiiolds, W. H., R.N.R. 

Richardson, G. M. 

Richmond, Wm., J.P. 

Riley, R. J. 

Riley, Thomas 
HRoberts, Field Mai-shal the Right Hon. 
Earl, V.C, K.G., &c. 

Roberts, Edwin B. 

Rubcrtshaw, James 

Robertson, W. J. 

Robinson, W. H. 

Rodger, G. F. E. 
ARoeder, Charles 

Rogerson, James 

Rothschild, Hon. Walter, M.P. 

Roth well. Alderman W T., J.P. 

Royse, S. W., J.P. 

Russell, A. C. 

Ry lands, Mrs. 

Salford, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of 
*Salford Corporation Free Librarie 
Committee 
Sawer, Thomas 
Scholfield, Councillor A. V. 
Scholfield, Mrs. A. Y. 
Schiitt, Dr. K., Hamburg 



180 The Journal of the Marhcheste^' Geographical Society. 



Schwann, Sir C. E.. liart., M.P. 

Scott, C. Archibald 

Scott, C. H., J.P. 

Scott, C. P., J P. 
AScott, Thomas 
AS^ed, G. H. 

Sheppai-d, E. F. 

Siegler, H. 

Silver, E. H. 

Silverutoue, Michael 

Simou, Louis 

Simpaon, Alfred 
ASimpsoD, J. Han-ej 

Sivewright, Wm. 
LSmallman, F., F.R.Q.S. 
LSmith, Rev. Canon F. C, M.A., F.K.a.S. 

Smith, Carleton McDougall 

Smith, J. H. H., J.P. 

Smith, John R. 

Smith, T. M. 

Snaddon, Councillor John 

Snaddon, Mrs. John 

Somerset, Henry 

Sousa-Deiro, Baron de (Vice-Conaul for 
Brazil). 

Southaiu, Dr. T. Frank 
ASouthem, John E. 
A Southward, Henry 
ASowerbutU, Harrr, A.R.C Sc. 

SowerbutU, T. W^, A.S.A.A. 

Sowler, Harry, J.P. 

Sjieaknian, Walter 
LSi)ence, Frank 

Spurr, H. R. 

Stadelbauer, H. 

Steinthal, Rev. S. A., F.R.G.S. 

Steinthal, Egbert 

Stephens, Alderman Sir \V., J.P. 

Sternberg, S. 

Steveiirton, Fretlerick 

Stevenson, Councillor Jobn 
AStewart, Robert 

Stoker, R. B., F.R.G.S. 

Stonehewer, Walter 

Storey, Henry E. 

Store V, J. Bennett 

Stott,' C. H. 
AStott, Miss Gladys 
AStott. Mifrt G. A.^ 

St<»tt. Julius 

Stronieyer, C. E. 

Summerskill, H. H. 

Susmann, E. 
HSwallow. Rev. H.. M.l). 

Swallow, R. W., B.Sc, Tai Yuan-fu 
LSykes, Arthur H.. D.L., J.P. 

Symondn, The Rev. Canon 

Tathani, I^ouatxl 
ATatton, Ues W. 
ATaylor, Albert 

Taylor, Arthur 

Taylor, Fretlerick 

Tavlor. Mi.-s Ruth 



Taylor, William 

Terry, Henry 

Thewlis, Councillor J. Herbert, J.P. 
LThomas, Geoi^e 
AThomas, P. 

Thompson, J. A. 

Thompson, W. Q. 

Thompstone, Mark W. 
cThomson, J.P., F.R.S.G.S., Brisbane 

Thomson, R. 

Thorp, Henry 

Timi^erlev, Miss 

Tout, Pn'>f. T. F., M.A. 
LTrafford, Sir Humphrey F. de, Bart. 

Tulloch, Angus. A.G. 

Turner, William 

Urwin, W. B. 

Vasquez B., Senor D. Miguel, Medelliu 
Vaudrey, Alderman, Sir W. H., J.P. 

Waddington, W. Angelo 
HWainwright, Joel, J.P. 

Wainwright, Thomas Foster 

Walkden, John, J.P., C.C. 

Walker, George 

Wallace, Miss M. W. 

Walhvork, Councillor James 

Wallwork, Roughsedge 

Walnisley, G. E. 
AWarburton, Minn Lilv 
HWard, A. W., M.A.. Littl). 
cWaixlroj), A. Tucker, F.R.G.S. 
AWarren, Geo. H. 

Waterhouse, I. C. 
AWataon, Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G.. R.E. 

Watt, Richard H. 

Webster, John 

WeiH8, Pnif. F. E., D.Sc. 

Welter, H. (Biblioth^ue Nationale 
Section des Cartes, Paris). 
L>Miittaker, Mrs. A. H. 

Wilde, Mitf^ 

Wilde, James D., M.A. 

AVilkinson, Wm. 

Willcockss Brigadier General Sir James, 
K.C.M.G., D.S.O. 

Williamson, R. T., M.I)., F.R.G.S. 

Williamson, Wm. Henry 
AWilloughbv, Mins Agnes 

Wilson. AVin., J.P. 
AWmstanley, T. G. 

Wood, George Her\'ey 
LWood, George W. Ravner, J.P. 

Wood, W. 

Woodhouse, S. T. 

Woolfenden, Joseph, juu. 

Woolley, George Stephen 

Woolley, Hennann, F.R.G.S. 
AWoolston, Miss M. 

Worthington, S. Barton 
LWrathmell, T. 

Zimmeni, Fritz 



Rules, 181 

THE 

MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 

I. OBJECT AND WOBK. 

The object of the Manchester Geographical Society is to promote tho 
study of all branches of Geographical Science, especially in its relation to 
commerce and civilisation. 

The work of the Society shall be : — 

1. To further in every way the pursuit of the science; as, by tne study 
of official and scientific documents, by communications with learned, in- 
dustrial and commercial societies, by correspondence with consuls, men of 
science, explorers, missionaries, and travellers, and by the enoouragement 
of the leaching of geography in schools and colleges. 

2. To hold meetings at which papers shall be read, or lectures delivered 
by members or others. 

3. To examine the possibility of opening new markets to commerce and 
to collect information as to the number, character, needs, natural products 
and resources of such populations as have not yet been brought into relation 
with British commerce and industry. 

4. To promote and encourage, in such way as may be found expedient, 
either alone of in conjunction with other Societies, the exploration of the 
less known regions of the earth. 

5. To inquire into all questions relating to British and Foreign 
colonisation and emigration. 

6. To publish a Journal of the proceedings of the Society, with a 
summary or geographical information. 

7. To form a collection of maps, charts, geographical works of refer- 
ence, and specimens of raw materials and commercial products. 

8. The Society shall not enter into any financial transactions beyond 
those necessarily attached to its declared object, and shall not make any 
dividend, gift, division, or bonus in money unto or between any of its 
members. 

II. ORGANISATION. 

9. The Society shall consist of ordinary, associate, corresponding, and 
honorary members. 

10. A Council shall be chosen annually from the ordinary members to 
conduct the affairs of the Society. It shall consist of a President, four 
or more Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two or more Honorary Secretaries (in- 
cluding a Secretary for Foreign Correspondence), and twenty-one 
Councillors. 

11. There shall be three Trustees elected by the Society, who shall hold 
office until death, disability, insolvency, or resignation. They s-liall ba 
members of the Council by virtue of their office. 

12. Any vacancy occurring in the Council during the current Tj;;r may 
be filled up by the Council. 



182 The Joaimal of the Mancliester Geographical Society. 

III. ELECTION OF MEMBERS. 

13. Every candidate for admission into the Society as an ordinary or an 
associate member must be proposed by a member. The proposal dhall be 
read out at the next Ordinary Meeting of the members, and any objection 
shall be forwarded in writing to the Secretary within seven days. 

14. The election of members is entrusted to the Council. The names of 
those elected shall be announced from the chair at the next Ordinary 3feet- 
ing after the election. 

15. The Secretary shall within three days forward to every newly- 
elected member notice of his election, a copy of the Rules of the Society, 
and a card announcing the days on which the Ordinary Meetings will be 
held during the session. But the election of an orainary or associate 
member shall not be complete, nor shall he be permitted to enjoy the 
privileges of a member, until he shall have paid his first year's subscription. 
Cnless such payment be made within three calendar months from the dato 
of election the election shall be void. 

16. The Council shall have iK}wer to elect honorary and corresponding 
members. 

17. Women shall be eligible as members and officers of the Society. 

IV. PAYMENTS. 

18. An ordinary member shall pay an annual subscription of Jb'l Is., or he 
may compound by one payment of JC\0 10s. An associate member sho.U pay 
an annual subscription of lOs. 6d. The Society's year shall begin on the 
first day of January. 

19. Members shall not be entitled to vote or to enjoy any other privilege 
of the Society so long as their payment shall continue in arrear, but associate 
members shall not vote nor shall they take any part in the government of the 
Society. 

20. The first annual payment of a member elected in November or 
December shall cover his subscription to the 31st December in the year 
following. 

21. On the first day of January in each year there shall be put up in 
the rooms of the Society a complete list of the members with the amount 
of their subscription due, and as the amounts are paid the fact »hall be 
marked on the list. 

22. Notice shall be sent to every member whose subscription shall not 
have been paid by the first of February, and if the arrears are not dis 
charged by the first of July the Council may remove the member from the 
list of members. Any member, whose subscription is in arrear for two years 
shall not be entitled to receive the Journal of the Society. 

Y. MEETINGS. 

23. The meetings of the Society shall be of tlirec kinds — Ordinaiy, Annual, 
and Special. 

24. In all meetings a majority of those present shall decide all questions, 
tlie President or Chairman having a casting vote in addition to his own. 

ORDINARY MEETINGS. 

25. The Ordinaiy Meetings of the Society shall be held once a month, 
from the month of October to the month of May, or oftener, if judged ex- 
pedient by the Council. 

26. All members whose subscriptions are not in arrear shall have a 
right to be present. All ordinary members shall have the privilege of in- 
troducing one visitor. 

27. The ordel: of proceedings shall be as follows: — 

(a) The minutes of the last meeting to be read and if correctly re- 
corded they shall be signed by the Chairman. 

{h) Presents, whether of money, lx)oks, maps, charts, instruments or 
specimens made to the Society to be announced. 

ir) The election of new members to be declared and the mimes of 
candidates to be read. 

(f/) Papers and communications to be read and discussed. 



Rides. 18«} 

28. At these meetings nothing relating to the rules or management 
shall be brought forward, but the minute book of the Council shall be on 
the table at each meeting for the inspection of any member, and extracta 
thereform may, with the consent of the chairman, be read to the meeting 
on the requisition of any member. 

29. On occasions of exceptional interest the Council may make provision 
for a larger admission of visitors. 

ANNUAL MEETINGS. 

30. The Annual Meeting of the members shall be held at such time and 
place as the Council shall' determine. 

31. Fourteen days* notice of such meeting shall b** sent to every member 
within the United Kingdom who has given his address to the Secretary, 
and notice of the meeting shall be advertised in such newspapers as the 
Council may direct. 

32. The object of this meeting shall be to receive the Annual Report of 
the Council and the Treasurer's Balance Sheet, to hear the President's ad- 
dress, to elect the Council and officers for the ensuing year, and to transact 
any other business. 

33. Any two ordinary members may nominate candidates for the Council 
or for office not later than one week prior to the day of election, and the 
names of candidates so nominated shall be at once put up in the rooms of 
the Society. The election of the Council and officers shall be by ballot. 

SPECIAL GENERAL HEETINGS. 

34. The Council may call a Special General Meeting of the Society when- 
ever they shall consider it necessary, and they shall do so if required by 20 
ordinary members. 

35. A week's notice of the time and object of every Special Meeting shall 
be sent to all members. No other business shall be entertained than that of 
which notice has been thus given. 

36. Twenty ordinary members shall form a quorum. 

VI. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS. 

THE COUNCIL. 

37. The government of the Society shall be entrusted to the Council, sub- 
ject to the rules of the Society. 

38. The Council shall annually elect a Chairman and Vice-Chairman. 

39. The President or the Chairman, or any three members of the Council, 
may at any time call a meeting thereof, to which every member of the 
Council shall be summoned. 

40. Seven shall form a quorum. 

41. In order to secure the most efficient study and treatment of the 
various subjects which constitute the chief work of the Society, the Council 
may appoint Committees for special purposes. These Committees, with 
the approbation of the Council, may afisociite with themselves any persons 
— ^whether members of the Society or not — from whom they may desire to 
obtain special assistance or information. The Committees shall report to 
the Council the results of their proceedings. 

42. The President, Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Council, and the 
Honorary Secretaries, shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of all 
Committees appointed by the Council. 

PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

43. The President is, by virtue of his office, the chairman of all the meet- 
ings of the Society. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice- 
Presidents may preside. 

CHAIRMAN OP THE COUNCIL. 

44. It is the duty of the Chairman of the Council to see that the rule<i 
are properly observed, to call for reports and accounts from Committees and 
Officers, and to summon, when necessary, special meetings of the Council 
and of Committees. 



184 The Journal oftlve Manchester Geographical Society, 

TREASURER. 

45. The Treasurer has the charge of all accounts ; he shall pay all accounts 
due by the Society after they have been examined and approved by the 
Council. 

46. He shall see that all moneys due to the Society are collected, and shall 
have power, with the approval of the Council, to apnoint a collector. All 
moneys received shall be immediately paid to the bankers of the Society. 

47. The bank passbook and the book of accounts shall be laid upon the 
table at every ordinary meeting of the Council. 

48. Ihe accounts shall be audited annually by two members, who shall be 
elected at an ordinary meeting at least one month before the Annual Meeting. 

SECRETARIES. 

49. The duty of the Honorary Secretaries shall be: — 

(a) To conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the Council. 

(6) To attend the meetings of the members and of the Council, and 
minute their proceedings. 

(c) At the ordinary meetings, to announce gifts presented to the Society 
since their last meeting; to read the names of all new members 
and of candidates for admission, and the papers communicated to 
the Society, which have been directed by the Council to be read. 

{d) To have immediate superintendence of all persons employed, to make 
arrangements for the meetings of the Society, and to take charge 
of all maps, books, furniture, and other effects. 

50. It shall be the more especial duty of one of the Honorary Se:;retaries 
to conduct, as may be directed by the Council, correspondence with Foreign 
Societies, and with persons resident abroad. 

51. In addition to the Honorary Secretaries, there shall be a paid 
Secretary appointed by the Council, whose duties shall be to assist the 
Honorary Secretaries, to issue the notices of the Council and of the Society, 
and to act under the instructions of the Council. 



2'he foregoing Riiles^ as now amend€(f, were approved and adopted al a 
meeting of the nismbers of the Societj/t of which due notice had been given to 
the members, held in the Toim Hall, Manchester, Wednesday, October Srd, 
1804. 

(Signed) GEORGE, President. 

S. ALFRED STEINTHAL, Chairman. 

F. ZIMMERN, Honorary Secretary. 

JAS. D. WILDE, M.A., Honorary Secretary. 

ELI SOWERBXJTTS, Secretary. 



[Copt.] 

It is hereby certified that this Society is entitled to the benefit of the Act 
6 and 7 Vict., Cap. 36, intituled " An Act to exempt from County, Borough, 
Parochial, and other Local Rates, Lands, and Buildings occupied by Scientific 
or Literary Societies." 

P«al of Rogistry of 
Friendly SodetiM. 

This 15th day of January, 1895. E. W. B. 



THE 



JOURNAL 



OF THE 



MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL 



SOCIETY 




VOL. XXIII. 



/ ' 



PUBUSHED FOR THE 
MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 

BY 

SHERRATT & HUGHES 
LONDON AND MANCHESTER 



COUNCIL AND OFFICERS 



or THE 



MANCHESTER ^GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 

THE NEW YORK 

FOR 1907. 



PUBLIC LIBRARY 



-;_fi- 



AtTOJi 
TILDEI 



imiMttim%gh^ >ess the PRINCE OF WALES, K.G. 

^^^^ II>fC€»pre«fD€nt«. 

Mr. J. F. Chektham, M.P. 



His Grace the Duke of Devonshire, K.G. 

The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby, K.G. 

The Right Hon. Earl Egerton ofTattok. 

The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford. 

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of 
Manchester. 

His Worship the Mayor of Oldham. 

His Worship the Mayor of Salford. 

The Vice-Chancellor of Victoria Uni- 
versity. 

The Right Rev. Monsionor Gadd, V.G. 

Sir W. H. HouLDSwoRTH, Bart. 

Hon. W. Rothschild, M.P. 

Sir C. E. Schwann, Bart., M.P. 

Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bart. 

Sir Frank Forbes Adam« C.I.E. 

Sir W. H. Holland, M.P. 

Alderman Sir Bosdin T. Leech, J. P. 

Sir Joseph Leigh, J. P. 

Sir William Mather, J. P. 

Mr. Frederick Burton, J. P. 



Professor T. H. Core, M.A. 

Mr. W. J. Crossley, M.P. 

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, J. P., 
F.R.S. 

Alderman James Duckworth, M.P., 
F.R.G.S. 

Mr. J. G. Groves, J. P. 

Mr. J. S. HiGHAM, M.P. 

Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S, 

Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.RG.S., 
Vire-Chmrman of the Council. 

Mr. S. Oppenheim, J. P. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. C. P. ScoiT, J. P. 

Mr. H. SowLER, J.P. 

Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S.. Chair- 
man of the Council. 

Mr. J. D. Wilde, M.A. 

Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. F. Zimmern. 



Mr. H. Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S. | Mr. Sydney L. Keymer, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S. 

'bonotari^ a:teadutet. 

Mr. David A. Little. 



Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Jas. Barningham. 
Mr. G. T. Bowes. 
Mr. J. C. Chorlton, J.P. 
Mr. C. Collmann, 

Consul for German Empire, 
Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., C.E. 
Mr. George Ginger. 
Major E. W. Greg, J.P., C.C, F.R.G.S. 
Mr. Councillor T. Hassall, J.P. 
Mr. A. J. Kennedy, F.R.G.S. 



Council. 

Mr. 



Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 
Mr. 



N. KoLP. 

John McFarlane, M.A. 

Horace C. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

T. C. Middlbton, J.P. 

F. S. Oppenheim. 

R. C. Phillips. 

J. Stephenson Reid. 

Councillor John Snaddon. 

T. W. SOWERBUTTS, A.S.A.A. 

George Thomas. 



Donocati? Seaetatfes. 

Mr. F. Zimmern. | Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. C. A. Clarke (Victorians), 

l)onorati^ BuDitor. 

Mr. Theodore Gregory, F.C.A. 

Bdsistant Sectetati?. 

Harry Sowerbutts, Assoc. R.C.Sc. 



CONTENTS. 



A 

PAGE 

".4 Booh of the Cevennes. By S. 

Baring Gould, M.Ar 93 

Accounts, 1906 84 

Additions to the Library 221 

Additions to the Museum 250 

Africa, East, Experiences in 97 

African Association 117 

Africa, West, With Pen and 

Camera in Nigeria 115 

A Glimpse at Western China : the 

Province of Shansi — ^R. W. 

Swallow, B.Sc 49 

A Holiday in the Far West — John 

Dendy 1 

"-4 Junior Course of Comparative 

Geography" 48 

America, North, Ci(nada, Holiday 

in the Far West 1 

America, North, Unknown Labra- 
dor 169 

Animals of Labrador 179 

Annual Dinner, 1907 90 

Annual Meeting, 1907 77 

Ascent of the Nun Kun Mountain 

Group 196 

Asia, India, Nun Kun Mountain 

Group 183 

Asia, Persia, The Lut 60 

Asia, Western China, the Province 

of Shansi 49 

Asulkan Glacier and Pass, Canada. 8 

Atlas, Notice of 27 

Auditor, Honorary, Election of ... 89 
A Woman's Way Through Unknown 

Labrador — Mrs. Leonidas 

Hubbard, Junr 169 

B 

Balance Sheet, 1906 84 

Balmforth, A., at Annual Meeting. 87 

Banff and the National Park 4 

Banking in Nigeria 150 

Barber in Nigeria 141 

Baringo Lake 106 

Barmal Glacier and Bhot Kol 

Glacier, relation between .... 211 

Barmal la 210 

Baro 143 

Barton Moss, Visit of the Society. 215 
Belloc, Hilaire, M.P. — The In- 
fluence of Physical Geography 
on the Destiny of Nations ... 46 

Books added to the Library 225 

Burutu 126 

C 

Calabar 122 

Canada, Far West, Holiday in 1 



PAGE 

Canadian Indians 18 

Canadian National Park, Banff 4 

Capri and Ana-Capri 154 

Castlefield Roman Camp, Visit to... 92 

Cattle in East Africa 104 

Causes of Deserts 60 

Caves at Mount Elgon 110 

China, Western, the Province of 

Shansi 49 

Climate of Shansi 57 

Coates, T. H.— The Channel Is- 
lands 218 

Columbia River 11 

Coolies, use of, in Mountaineering. 195 

Correspondence 95 

Corresponding Societies, List of ... 242 

Cotton in Nigeria 144 

Council and Officers, List of 88 

Cowry Shells as Money 147 

Crook, Colonel H. T., J. P., at the 

Annual Dinner 91 

D 

D 41 Mountain 193 

Dendy, John — ^A Holiday in the 

Far West 1 

Desert of Persia, the Lut 60 

Deserts and their Origin 60 

Deserts— B. Hobson, M.Sc. 74 

Deserts— H. R. Sykes, M.A 60 

Deserts — Prince ICropotkin 64 

Devil's Lake, near Banff 6 

Dinner, Annual, 1907 90 

Donations, List of 83 

Dowson, Miss Margaret — Snapshots 

in India 218 

Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 152 
Dress of Shansi People 55 

E 

East Africa, Experiences in 97 

Education in Shansi 58 

Egbo Societjr, Calabar 123 

Egga, Nigeria 143 

Eiaw tribe and country, Nigeria ... 130 

Eldama Ravine 108 

Election of Council and Officers.... 88 

Elgeyo. or Mau Forest 108 

Elgon Mount 110 

Emerald Lake, Canada 21 

Engabumi, or the Country of the 

Cave Dwellers 110 

Europe, Italy, Dreams of 152 

Examination, Report of 80 

Exchanges with other Societies.;,... 242 

Excursions of the Society 92, 215 

Experiences in East Africa — Rt. 
Hon. Lord Hindlip 97 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Exploration of the Nun Kun Moun- 
tain Group and its Glaciers — 
W. H. Workman, M.D., 
F.R.G.S 183 



Fariabad Glacier 207 

Farm, Government Stock, Naivasha 103 

Farm Life in New Zealand 95 

Far West, A Holiday in tbe 1 

Fawcus, W. P. James — Experiences 

in Zanzibar and East Africa. 218 

Field, Rocky Mountains 19 

Florence 167 

Flowers of Labrador 180 

Forcados 124 

Forest Life, Canada 17 

Fox, Rev. A. W., M.A.— A Fort- 
night in Dingle 44 

Frazer River, Canada 16 

Fruit Growing Industry, Western 

Canada 12 

Fulani in Nigeria 136 



Ganri Glacier 205 

Garden J^ke, Western Canada 18 

Geographical Position in relation to 

tne Productive Capacity of 

Land 28 

Geography, Report of Hon. 

Examiner 80 

"Geological Atlas of Great Britain 

and Ireland'* 27 

George River, Source of 176 

Gilgil 104 

Ginger, George — Sunny Sicily 45 

Glacier House, Selkirk Range 8 

Glaciers of the Nun Kun Mountain 

Group 183 

Glossop, Victoria Hall, Collection 

of objects found at Melandra 92 

Goldie, Sir George, in Nigeria 120 

Government Stock Farm, East 

Africa 103 

Grand Lake, Nascaupee River 175 

Gray. J. Reid — some Ancient 
Dreams of Italy in Stone and 

Paint 152, 216 

H 

Hamnett, R. — Objects found at 

Melandra 92 

''Handy Volume Atln^ of the 

World" 93 

Harrison River, Western Canada... 16 



PAGE 

Hausas, Nigeria 132 

Hindlip, Rt. Hon. Lord — Experi- 
ences in East Africa 97 

History of Labrador 169 

History of Nigeria 115 

Hobson, Bernard, M.Sc. — Deserts.. 74 
Hope, R. Ernest — with Pen and 

Camera in Nigeria 90, 115 

Howdill, C.B., A.R.I.B.A.— Corsica 45 

Hubbard Lake, George River 176 

Hubbard, Leonidas, Junr., death of 171 
Hubbard, Mrs. Leonidas, Jimr. — 

Unknown Labrador 169, 216 

I 

Illecillewaet Valley, Canada 11 

Indians of Canada 18 

Iron Trade of Ping Ding 53 

Italy, Dreams of, in stone and paint 152 



Jakrie Tribe, Burutu 126 

Jebba 145 

Journey across the Lut 66 

Juju Rock, Jebba 146 

Juju Spirits and Charms 127 

K 

Kaduna River 143 

Kashmir, Sum, Nun Kun Mountain 

Group 183 

Kavirondo Country and People Ill 

Kelowna, Western Canada 12 

Kharuneh, Persia 68 

Kikuyu Country 112 

Kikuyu Escarpment 103 

Kisumu, Uganda Railway 106 

Knutsford, Visit of the Society .... 215 



Labrador, Unknown 169 

Lagos, visit to 149 

Lake Minnewanka. or DeviFs Lake. 

Canada 6 

Lake O'Kanagan. Canada 12 

Lambert, F., F.R.G.S.— Mammoth 

Cave of Kentucky 219 

Lamu. East Africa 99 

Lectures by Victorians, 1906-1907... 82 

Library Additions 221 

Life on Fruit Farms, Kelowna 13 

Lily. Selkirk 9 

List of Corre.sponding Societies .... 242 

List of Council and Officers SS 

List of Donations 83 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

List of Maps, Books, &c., added to 

the Library 221 

List of Members of the Society ... 251 
List of Victorian Lectures, 1906- 

1907 82 

Loading a Steamer by Natives 147 

Loess formation, Shansi 51 

Lokoja 131 

Loom of the Hausas 132 

Lut, Journey across the 66 

Lut, the, Persia 60 



M 



Machakos 101 

Magadi Lake, containing Soda 103 

'*Map of the Gold Coa^t'' 94 

Maps added to the Library 221 

Martin, H. C, F.R.G.S. — The 

Fjords or Norway 46 

Masai Reservation, East Africa .... 105 
Mayor, Rt. Hon. Lord, at Annual 

Meeting 87 

Meeting, Annual, 1907 77 

Meetings of the Society, see Pro- 

ceedinffs. 
Melandra. Objects found, arranged 

at Victoria Hall 92 

Members of the Society, List of ... 261 

Michikamau Lake, Labrador 171 

Mombasa 98 

Monkeys near Burutu 126 

Moraine Lake, Canada 26 

Moraines, terminal, formation of ... 208 

Mountaineering in Kashmir 183 

Mount Stephen, Canada 19 

Museum, Additions to the 250 

Musical Instruments of the Hausas 134 



N 



Nairobi 101 

Naivasha Lake 103 

Nanga Parbat Mountain 183 

Naples 155 

Nascaupee River, Labrador 172 

Nascaupee River, source of 172 

National Park, Banff 4 

Natives loading a Steamer 147 

Natives of Shwisi 54 

New Zealand, Farm Life 95 

Nieves penitentes, formation of .... 190 

Nigeria, History of 115 

Nigeria, with Pen and Camera 115 

Njoro, Ea«t Africa 106 

Nun Kun Mountain Group and its 

Glaciers 183 

Nuttall. H.. M.P., at the Annual 

Dinner 91 



O 

PAGE 

Officers and Council, List of 88 

O'Kanagan Lake, Canada 12 

"Our Own Islands" 48 

P 

Palm Oil in Nigeria 129 

Park, Canadian National 4 

Park, Mungo and his travels 117 

Patti, Mount, Lokoja 132 

Payne, Rev. G. A., leader at 

Knutsford 5l5 

People of Shansi 54 

Persia, The Lut 60 

Phelps, J. J. — Roman Camp at 

Castlefield 92 

"Philips* Progressive Atlas of Com- 
parative Geography" 48 

Phillips, R. Cobden, leader at 

Barton Moss 215 

Ping Ding, Shansi, and its Iron 

Production 53 

Pisa 166 

Pompeii 160 

Portrait of our late Secretary, Eli 
Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.. Note 

on 59 

Powell, Rev. A. D., M. A.— Round 
the "All Red Route" with a 

Camera 217 

Proceedings of the Society... 43, 90, 215 

R 

Railway Travelling in the Rocky 

Mountains 8 

Rangdum Vallev, Kashmir 183 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S., at 

Annual Dinner 91 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S., at 

Annual Meeting 87 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.— a Visit 

to Japan 217 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.— In 
York with the British As- 
sociation 44 

Reed, J. Howard, F.R.G.S.— Some 

Great African Travellers .... 220 
Reos, Rev. F. A.— The Swiss and 

Italian Lakes 220 

Reid, J. Stephenson — Cycling Tour 
Through Connemara and the 

West of Ireland 218 

Reid, J. Stephenson at Annual 

Meeting 87 

Report, Annual, 1906. 77 

Report of Hon. Examiner 80 

Report of Victorians, 1906-1907 ... 82 

Reservation for the Masai 105 

Result of Examination 81 

Reviews 27, 47, 48. 93 

Rocky Mountains, Canada 6 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Roman Camp at Castlefield, Visit to 92 
Roman Camp at Melandra, objects 

found 92 

Rome 163 

Rossington, Rev. H. J., M.A. — A 

Tour in the Austrian Tyrol. 45 | 

Royal Niger Company 120 | 

Rules of the Society 269 

Russell, E. J., D.Sc.— The Relation | 

between the Geographical 
Position and the Productive 
Capacity of Land 28 | 

S I 

SaltinShansi 53 

Schaefer, Madam, Botanist 20 I 

Seal Lake, Labrador 173 ; 

Selkirk Lily 9 j 

Selkirk Range, Canada 7 

Sentik la 213 " 

Shafat Nala and Glacier 184 

Shansi, Salt Lake in 53 

Shansi,' the Province of 49 

Shonga 144 

Shuswap Chain of Lakes, Canada... 11 

SicamouH Junction, Canada 11 

Sirgoit Hill 109 

Smith, John R.— Life of William 

Cowper 90 

Society, Excursions of the 215 

Society, List of Members of the ... 251 
Society, Meetings of the, i*€e Pro- 
ceedings. 

Society, Rules of the 259 

Soda in Lake Magadi 103 

Some Ancient Dreams of Italy in 
Stone and Paint — J. Reid 

Gray 152 

Sowerbutts, Eli, Note about Por- 
trait of 69 

Steamer, Natives loading a 147 

Steamers on the Niger 143 

Steinthal. Rev. S. A.— 81st birth- 
day of 218 

Stephen Mount, Canada 19 

Sulphur Mountain, Banff 5 

Suru, Kashmir, Nun Kun Moun- 
tain Group 183 

Sum River 183 

Swallow, R. W., B.Sc— The Pro- 
vince of Shansi 49 

Sykes, Herbert R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 

—The Lut 60 

Sykes, Miss Ethel — Journey across 

the Lut 66 

Synopsis of Journey from Yezd to 

Meshed 73 



Tai Ku. Shansi 52 

Tai Yuan fu 51 



PAGB 

Tai Yuan fu, description of 57 

Takakaw Fall, Yoho Valley 23 

Tana River 99 

Tanner, Miss — Journey across the 

Lut 66 

Taru Desert 100 

The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 
— H. R. Sykes, M.A., 

F.R.G.S 60 

The Relation between the Geo- 
graphical Position and the 
Productive Capacity of Land 

— E. J. Russell, D.Sc 28 

"The Touruffs India" 47 

Thompson River, Canada 16 

Tongul Village, Suru 218 

Transport in Shansi 54 

Tulloch, Angus A. G. — Views taken 
on Glaciers and round Mount 
Vesuvius 44 

U 

Uganda Railway 100 

Ungava 178 

V 

Venice 167 

Vice- Chancellor of Victoria Univer- 
sity at Annual Meeting 87 

Victorians, Report of, 1906-1907 ... 82 
Villages of Shansi, Appearance of... 56 

Visits of the Society 92, 215 

Voi, Taru Desert 100 

W 

Wainwright, Joel J.P. — Letter 

from New Zealand to 95 

Water Supply across the Lut 68 

Wilde, J.D., M.A., Hon. Examiner 

—Report 80 

With Pen and Camera in Nigeria^- 

R. Ernest Hope 115 

Woman's Way through Unknown 

Labrador, A 169 

Workman, Mrs. F. Bullock — Moun- 
taineering in Kashmir 184 

Workman, Dr. Wm. Hunter— Ex- 
ploration of the Nun -Kun 
Mountain Group and its 
Glaciers 183, 219 

Wrench, Dr. E. M., M.V.O.— 
Effects of Glaciers in Derwent 
Valley 217 

Y 

Yams in Nigeria 129 

Yellow River, China 49 

Yezd, departure from 67 

Yoho Valley, Canada 20 

Z 

Zl Mountain 187 

Zungeru 143 



CONTENTS 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Diagram, illustrating Effect of Elevation on Temperature of Land 37 

illustrating the Effect of Proximity to a River on Temperature of Land ... 40 

illustrating Water Supply to Hill Side 30 

Africa — 

West, Jakrie Chief and Family 127 

Hausa Loom 133 

Jebba, famous Juju Rock 146 

Loading Steamer, paying Cowries to the Women 148 

Lokoja, Barber's Shop 141 

Lokoja, Bridge of Sighs 139 

Lokoja, Market 140 

Lokoja Road 135 

Lokoja, the Beach ". 132 

Shipping Cotton to England 145 

America — 

North, Canada, Banff, Cascade Mountain 3 

Canada, Garden Lake, Harrison River 19 

Canada, Head of the Flimie, Kelowna 14 

Canada, In the Selkirks, Mounts Fox and Donkin 10 

Canada, Moraine Lake 26 

Canada, Mount Stephen, from Burgess Pass 24 

Map of Eastern Labrador, by Mrs. Leonidas Hubbard, Junr. (reduced) 182 

Labrador, Lower George River — River Wall of loose Rock 178 

Labrador, Lower Nascaupee River, Sand Hills and Ice Banks 172 

Labrador, Mountain Top View of the Plateau 178 

Labrador, Nascaupee River entering Seal Lake 172 

Asia — 

India, Map of the Nun-Kun Massif, in Sura, Kashmir 214 

Europe — 

England, Coldharbour Farm and Downs, Wye 32 

Coombe Woods, Wimbledon 31 

The Stour, Wye ! 33 



THE WRITERS Of PAPRRS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR OPINIONS 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



Cl)e Journal 



OF THE 

maticDester eeograpMcal Socletp. 

* * * 

"A HOLIDAY IN THE FAR WEST." 
By Mr. John Dendt. 

(Addressed to the Society, in the Geographical Hall, on Tuesday, 
January 8th, 1907.) 

Evert lecturer is entitled to his introductory apologies and 
explanations. Mine shall be as brief as possible. 

I am not here to give useful information. We went to 
Canada for pleasure and refreshment which we got abundantly, 
but we did not pretend to accumulate statistics nor qualify as 
advisers to intending emigrants. Nor shall I indulge in 
generalisations and prophecies as to the present and future of 
that great country. There are travellers who can study an 
empire in a month, and give you the results in half an hour. I 
am not one of them. At most I can hope to give you some idea 
of what some parts of the Far West look like. But certain 
general impressions one did receive, which had a good deal to 
do with the happiness of our visit. There was a feeling of a 
widespread and reasonable prosperity : that the man who would 
face hard work, and was not a fool, had a safe future before 
him. The problems of extreme poverty and keen competition 
for the means of living did not seem to press as they do here. 
And the drink problem was at any rate far lets obtrusive. 
People seemed healthier and happier, more hopeful and more 
vigorous. Again, there was the feeling of a far more genuine 



2 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

equality than we have here. Men seemed to be taken much 
more on their merits and less on. their wealth or the nature of 
their employment. Of civility we found no lack, of servility 
hardly a trace. Political freedom seemed to be backed by social 
freedom in a way in which it is not here. And the bitter 
religious strife which is disfiguring our national life so greatly 
to-day was not forced upon one's attention there. Now these 
things had much to do with the enjoyment of our visit, for they 
helped to create for us an atmosphere which it is as impossible 
for me to reproduce here as it would be to bring into this room 
the sweet cool breezes that ruffled the waters of Lake Huron, or 
the bright sunlight that was ripening the grain in Manitoba. 

We travelled some 12,000 miles by land and water, but 
lingered only in the Far West, to which we were drawn by its 
splendid scenery, the presence there of friends, and the chance 
of seeing something of the settlers' fight with nature and the 
beginnings of civilised life in wild places. There only shall I 
linger to-night, not pausing by the way to dwell on the novel 
experience of ocean travel and the splendid storm we passed 
through. We must not linger on the noble stream of St. 
Lawrence, with its great cities of Quebec and Montreal, nor at 
Toronto, most charming of modern towns, with its beautiful 
leafy suburbs and its noble University buildings. We must 
pass without notice through the settled, prosperous, farming 
lands of Ontario, down to the shores of Lake Huron, and away 
from it at once in a luxuriously appointed steamboat for two 
delightful and restful days upon the great inland seas. Land- 
ing at the head of Lake Superior, we must not pause in our 
48 hours' journey by train through Winnipeg, and across the 
vast prairie lands which rise imperceptibly but steadily towards 
the mountain wall of the Rockies. Very interesting, beautiful, 
and impressive in their own way are those vast reaches of level 
lands, sweeping away to a distant horizon on every side, at 
times largely cultivated and dotted with little homes with their 
evidence of hard work and growing prosperity — at other times 
wild and solitary as they have ever been, save that here and 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 3 

there a herd of wandering cattle reminds you that the rancher 
is in possession. Interesting, too, is the chain of towns strung 
like beads along the railway line, some already considerable, 
some the merest beginnings, all alike confident that they have a 
great future before them. At Calgary, the last of these towns, 
we should have been in sight of the great mountains, but we 
had run into bad weather, in which the prairie looked, it must 
be confessed, a little dreary. Thenceforward we could only see 




Fig. 1. "Cascade Mountain, Banff." 

that we were rising rapidly through the foot hills and coming in 
an astonishingly short time into the neighbourhood of snow-clad 
mountains, a strange contrast to the flat world we had left 
behind. Banff was our destination, and our first evening 
showed us little but suggestions of big things around us. All 
the more impressive was the contrast, and all the more joyfully 
did we wake next morning to a glorious May day, and a view 
from our window which remained an unfailing delight during 



4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

our week's stay. Banff is well-named the " Beautiful." I see 
that writing at the close of our first perfect day we called it the 
" Gates of Heaven." It has one qualification for that title in 
lying on the southern slope of the Rocky Mountains 4,600 ft. 
above sea level. At that altitude in early summer the unclouded 
sunshine only serves to lend an added sweetness to the pure, 
cool air, and a brilliancy to the masses of snow which still cling 
comparatively low down on the surrounding mountains. Yet it 
is only these things, the keen air and the snow, which enable 
you to realise the height at which you are. (See Fig. I.) For you 
find yourself in a richly-wooded valley, from out of which the 
dark pines and firs, interspersed with lighter foliage, such as that 
of the Birch and the young Cotton Wood climb high up many of 
the surrounding mountains in fine contrast with the snowy peaks, 
visible in every direction through and above the woods. The 
Bow River pours its swift green waters along the valley, form- 
ing a fine cascade a little way below the village, and just before 
they are joined by the more milky waters of the Spray. Through 
the woods paths, or trails, as they are called there, are cut in 
various directions, to which you must keep pretty close: not 
indeed that "trespassers will be prosecuted," but because tres- 
passing is too difficult. It was here that we first realised what 
an ancient forest is like, and the difference between it and an 
ordinary wood, though we saw more wonderful ones elsewhere. 
In all directions the ground beneath the living trees is densely 
cumbered with the dead, in every stage of decay and every 
possible position, to be climbed over, dodged round, or wriggled 
under. Often too there is a dense living undergrowth, often 
also wonderful masses of fern, and moss, and lichen. Many 
birds, beautiful in plumage, but not great at singing, are to be 
seen; but at Banff the chief delight in the woods were the 
charming little "chipmunks,** a kind of small and often brightly- 
coloured squirrel. These are wonderfully tame; they seem to 
know the law of the place, which allows no wanton destruction 
of animal life. But Banff lies in the great National Park, is 
indeed the administrative centre of it. The National Park is 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 5 

one of the great institutions of Canada. In its two sections it 
comprises an area three times as large as Lancashire, and in- 
cludes some of the finest scenery in the world. It is reserved 
as the property of the nation: saved for ever alike from the 
enclosures of the sportsman and the encroachments of the jerry 
builder, the desecrations of the manufacturer, and the abomina- 
tions of the advertising agent. Nor is it for the good of men 
only, but also of the wild creatures who within its limits are 
protected from the gun and from the snare. The great 
buifaloes, so nearly exterminated, have with a few elk and deer 
a special enclosure of their own, where a fine herd of them is 
increasing in numbers. Tou can ride or drive among them and 
take their portraits from a carriage, but on foot it is not safe to 
visit them. 

It is the being in the Park which keeps Banff itself a com- 
paratively small but well-laid-out village, under strict Govern- 
ment control, exercised not with a view to profit but to keeping 
the place beautiful. No local Town Council is allowed to boom 
and spoil it. There are a few good shops, two good hotels, and 
away up on a mountain side a Government Bathing Establish- 
ment at the Hot Springs, where strong sulphur water bubbles 
out at a temperature of 120 degrees, and is said to have wonder- 
ful medicinal properties. Also there are charming wooden 
bungalows buried in the pine woods, which you may hire for a 
week or more and picnic in to your heart's content ; but no rows 
of lodging houses, or villa residences, or works of any kind. 

We climbed some of the lesser hills, and from one of them. 
Sulphur Mountain, still deep in snow at the top, though only 
some 7,000 ft. high, surveyed a great panorama of mountain 
ranges running in many directions, and distinguished by a 
strange wildness and ruggedness of outline. They are often 
toothed, and notched, and castellated into extraordinary shapes. 
I am told that these mountains being geologically younger, and 
also in parts composed of a harder rock than those we are here 
accustomed to, or even than the Swiss Alps, have not yet been 
so much weather-worn and smoothed down in their outlines as 



6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

is the case with older ranges. Here and there you do get 
rounded hills or perfect cones of snow, but they are not char- 
acteristic. 

Our chief excursion here was to Devil's Lake, or, to give it 
its preferable Indian name, Lake Minnewanka. It lies 9 miles 
away from Banff, with a solitary house on its shores kept by an 
elderly Cornishman, who takes you out in pursuit of its big fish, 
trout of a special breed that run up to 20 or even 30 pounds in 
weight. I got none heavier than 5|, but had we caught nothing 
at all, the hours spent on its deep blue waters shoaling into 
delicate light blues and greens, and ringed round with noble 
mountains, some forest-clad and some precipitously rocky, on 
all sides leading up to snow fields and white peaks, would have 
compensated for the loss of all the fish in the world. And in 
the garden of the little house, the few plants in which were so 
eagerly and carefully tended by a bonny girl, whose knowledge 
of the world extended no further than Banff, one of us saw a 
lovely humming bird. 

Banff is essentially a place of refreshment for mind and 
body. One wonders if it can be kept so, and made available at 
reasonable cost for larger numbers of tired workers, without 
vulgarising and spoiling it as is so often done in such places at 
home. 

A year ago I do not think I could have found a good word 
for a railway which had dared to invade the heart of the 
mountains. One memorable Sunday when we traversed the 
Rockies and Selkirks from Banff to Glacier House has somewhat 
modified my views. The pictures may give you some faint idea 
of the marvellous scenery through which the C.P.R. line passes, 
but they cannot give you the effects of height and depth, nor 
the wonderful distant views of loftier summits, snow fields and 
glaciers which every branch valley discloses. From Banff to 
Glacier House is only about 140 miles, but it takes from 7 to 8 
hours if nothing goes wrong. Slow going, but for good reason, 
for the line first climbs up the valley of the Bow for 700 ft. to 
the Kicking Horse Pass, then descends down the Kicking Horse 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 7 

River for 43 miles to Golden on the great Columbia River, and 
in that descent drops no less than 2,640 ft. Here it passes out 
of the Rocky Mountains, and after running some 20 miles along 
the Columbia River turns into the Beaver Valley and begins to 
climb the Selkirks, the range which lies immediately west of the 
Rockies, and in a distance of only 22 miles ascends nearly 2,000 
feet to the summit of Rogers Pass. So you will easily under- 
stand the slow going, which has to be almost as slow and careful 
down hill as up. And the pace has the great advantage that it 
gives you a chance of looking at the scenery. Special carriages 
also are put on with monster windows for this purpose, windows 
that on a fine day are kept open, so that you have almost as free 
a view as if you were driving in an open car. Better still is it 
to do as we did, and get out on the small platform at the end of 
the last carriage where, as you hold on tight lest you be thrown 
ofip when sudden curves are turned, the wonderful panorama 
unrolls itself hour after hour under a brilliant sun, until the 
eyes get too tired to take in any more, or, in the steeper places, 
an engine comes behind to help by puahing, and drives you 
inside. 

Every yard of this journey is of fascinating interest and 
presents superb views. Much has been written and often in an 
exaggerated strain about this great feat of engineering, and 
the scenery which surrounds it. The difficulties were doubtless 
very great. At one time you may find yourself clinging high 
up on the side of a steep mountain face, and passing through 
tunnels in its projecting buttresses, and the next you are moving 
along near late lying patches of snow. At times in the wider 
parts a clear view of some isolated mountain mass is disclosed, 
and then again the valley closes in so narrowly that you wonder 
how space was found to plant the line beside the wild torrent 
that seems to claim it all. You may find yourself flying over a 
chasm of 300 ft. with a brawling waterfall and stream below, or 
in pleasant contrast gliding down the broad valley of the 
Columbia, with the peaks of the Rockies and the Selkirks mar- 
shalled in vast processions, receding beyond sight in the dis- 



8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

tance, on either hand. Most interesting, too, are the great 
stretches of forest, often alas terribly burned and destroyed. 
Sometimes through blackened stems you see the snowy peaks 
and distant glaciers, sometimes thei dead trees are white and 
brilliant in the sunshine. It is especially in the Selkirks, and 
as you move west, that the trees become so great a feature and 
so endless a delight. 

One word finally about the Railway. To me it did not seem 
to desecrate the mountains as it does in Switzerland. Wonder- 
ful as it is as a piece of work, it is so dwarfed by its surroundings 
that it seems to have no power to spoil them. I had a fanciful 
feeling that after all it was only there on sufferance, and that 
some day the mighty peaks, discharging their crushing 
avalanches, the solemn silent forests and the wild torrents, 
would put their heads together and quietly wipe it all out 
again; while the wild creatures, bears and deer, eagles and 
hawks, and even the greedy porcupines and friendly squirrels 
would look on approvingly. It is all too vast and grand even 
for a railway to spoil. 

This day's journey landed us at Glacier House. The only 
buildings are just the station and hotel with its outhouses. 
There is nothing more. No roads but the railroad within I 
suppose 20 miles. No place where you could buy anything 
within nearly 40. It lies on the bend of a great horse-shoe 
curve, made by the railway as it descends the Selkirk Range. 
In front the forest falls sharply away into the deep, dark valley, 
beyond which a range of noble white peaks closes the view. 
Behind, the woods lead up to the ice fall and moraine of 
lUecillewaet Glacier, on one side of which rises Sir Donald, the 
best known mountain of these parts, to between 10,000 and 
11,000 ft. A few trails run through the forest in various direc- 
tions, by which you pass quickly from the luxury of a good 
hotel into scenes as wild as they are beautiful. 

Let us for a few minutes take the one that leads to the 
Asulkan Glacier and Pass some 4,000 ft. above the Hotel. One 
of the many excellent arrangements of the C.P.R. is the pro- 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 9 

vision of skilled Swiss Guides at the best climbing centres on 
its line. Under the care of a fine young fellow from Interlaken, 
and duly provided with the regulation rope and axes, we pass in 
the early morning of a doubtful day, which improves later on 
to perfection, into the solemn woods, whose silence is broken 
only by strange bird calls, the chattering of scolding squirrels, 
the shrill whistle of the marmot, sometimes by the rustle of a 
passing bear, and often by a scurry of a porcupine making for 
shelter in a convenient tree. Under the trees, over green car- 
petings of splendid oak ferns and many a strange and beautiful 
growth, we pass until we strike a foaming stream strangely 
dammed with a mass of fallen trees, the work of some avalanche 
or heavy wind, through and over which the milky glacier water 
pours in a quite novel kind of cascade. Presently following the 
stream the woods are left behind. Patches of winter snow, fast 
disappearing in the June sunshine, block the trail, while close 
beside them patches of the lovely golden Selkirk Lily, not un- 
like very delicate daffodils, follow up the melting snow. Mount- 
ing steadily the higher peaks begin to come into sight, and give 
a constant succession of glorious views, until the trail ceases 
near the glacier's foot, and some heavy plunging in deep snow 
lands us on the steep lateral moraine, up which lies our rather 
rough way, with the Ptarmigan, just changing their winter 
plumage, lunning on before us as tame as barn-door fowls. A 
halt at the top to put the rope on before taking to the glacier, 
gives a great view back, down to the main valley with Rogers 
Pass far away below us on the right. An hour or more's steady 
grind over the glacier and the neve above it, lands us at last in 
a very perfect little col with the giants of the Selkirks, the 
Dawson Range, full in view before us and separated from us 
only by the Great Fish Creek Valley, whose bottom lies darkly 
and precipitously some 3,000 ft. immediately below us. (See 
Fig 2.) It is a great place, deep in the heart of the mountains, 
and well worth the heavy plunging in softened snow and some- 
what tumultuous glissading which are features of our descent. 
It is not every lady who goes to Glacier House that makes that 



1 



10 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

little 9 hours' trip. I remember that when we got back there 
was a train just in, and an American gentleman, making his 
half hour's inspection of the place, said to me : 

" I guess there ain't any excursions here." 

" No, sir," I answered, ** unless you make them on your 
legs." 

"Ah ! I thought so," he said, regarding my muddy boots 




Fig. 2. " In the Selkirks, Mounts Fox and Donkin, from the 
Asulkan Pass." 

and my wife's scorched face with an amused contempt; and he 
went on by the same train. 

When it came to our turn to depart from Glacier House we 
had a narrow escape. Our train was only about 4 hours late, 
but it was the last to come through for three days. On such a 
line as this you may at any time have a landslide, a wash-out, 
or a broken-down bridge, and though the extreme care taken 
makes life very safe, the same cannot always be said for time. 



"A Holiday in the Far West" il 

But you are kept advised hours before hand how late your train 
is running, and even, should it be an early morning one, are not 
called until it gets within reasonable distance. 

Just below Glacier House you come on the celebrated "loops,'' 
where by a succession of very bold twists and turns the line 
descends a steep portion of the lUecillewaet Valley. The old 
wooden trestle bridges, passed over on these curves, which re- 
quire a great amount of repair and are in constant danger from 
fires, are now being replaced by steel structures. 

In a distance of 43 miles from Glacier House, the line 
descends through splendid scenery some 2,600 ft. to Revelstoke, 
where it again hits the Columbia River, which has made an 
immense curve around the Selkirk Range. That range is now 
left behind and the Gold Range entered on by the Eagle Pass, 
some 20 miles beyond which lies Sicamous Junction, our next 
stopping place. Ordinarily one would not pick out a Railway 
Junction as an ideal place for a lengthened stay, especially 
where the station and the only hotel are one building and there 
are no roads at all about the place. But if the front door of 
the Hotel opens on to the platform, its windows look directly 
on to one arm of the great Shuswap chain of Lakes, which 
octopus like send out their branches, 20 to 30 miles, in many 
directions, among the wildest of places full of wild creatures 
and visited only here and there by lumber men or sportsmen. 
It is a great fishing place, and we spent many an hour upon its 
waters, caught more than once by considerable storms. One 
Sunday morning, under a blazing sun, we pulled our boat into 
a little rocky bay. As we landed, a delicious perfume met us 
from bushes of red roses fragrant as our own garden ones. Just 
above ran the Railway Line, skirting the lake on its way to the 
Pacific, and above that the forest rose steeply, promising wel- 
come shade, but with such a tangle of dead logs and wild under- 
growth as made it difficult to find a comfortable camping 
ground. Around us were bushes bearing pure white flowers, 
the Thimbleberry, contrasting finely with the red roses. A 
magnificent orange and scarlet columbine glowed under the hot 



12 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

sun, side by side with many another lovely flower. Very large 
butterflies, sulphur and black, chocolate and white, flitted 
around, and sky-blue dragon-flies shimmered past. The Lake 
slept peacefully at our feet, with here and there some water 
fowl splashing along it, or the swoop of a fish hawk breaking its 
surface. Across it some two miles away densely wooded hills 
rose to the height of a couple of thousand feet; away to the 
right another arm began its windings and passed out of sight. 
And the hot sun beat down, and the hum of many insects rose 
up, and from the woods behind came from time to time the 
strange call of a creature we could not name, till the solitude 
was broken by the roar of a great train thundering by at our 
feet, which passed and left a deeper peace. That was one of 
our great mornings. 

From Sicamous a branch line runs south to the Okanagan 
Lake, our next destination — ^a line often exquisitely bordered 
with flowers, parterres of blue lupins and red roses, martagon 
lilies and pale purple sage, set in the tender green of young 
fern and backed by massive pine woods. Soon we begin to come 
in touch with less wild scenes, for it is a fertile country that is 
opened out by this line. Very interesting are the first rude 
houses in the clearings, with the rough snake fencing we saw 
so much of in far away Ontario. 

In parts of British Columbia an important industry in fruit 
growing is rapidly springing up, which finds an expanding 
market in the new towns from Winnipeg to the Eocky Moun- 
tains. One centre of this industry is on the Okanagan Lake. 
It is a fine sheet of water some 60 miles in length, lying among 
lofty hills, away south of the main line and not very far from 
the American frontier. Several fertile valleys open down to it, 
at the mouth of one of which lies the little town of Eelowna. 
Eelowna may serve as a fair sample of the young town of 
Western Canada, though it has not gone ahead quite so fast as 
many do. With a population of some 800 only it is nevertheless 
a City, with a Mayor and all proper officials of its own, and 
even the beginnings of a public debt. One long wide street runs 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 13 

inland from the Lake, with the beginnings of sundry others 
branching from it, streets all more or less unmade as yet, at 
least not made in our sense of the term, two moderate kind of 
hotels, a club, a bank, several excellent shops, and Churches of 
various denominations, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, and a 
variety of Nonconformists. The Roman Catholics were first on 
the ground in their Mission to the Indians, which has given its 
name to the river — ^the Mission Creek. Fruit growing has for 
some time been an important, though not the only, industry in 
the level valley which stretches for some miles back from the 
town. Lately, however, it has taken a new development. At 
the point where the river leaves the hills it passes through a 
series of curious flat terraces, called " Benches," lying from 100 
to 160 feet above its level, with a sharp descent to it. The sur- 
face of these bench lands, dotted freely in spring with sunflowers 
and covered with a sparse greyish-green vegetation, is not very 
promising, for the soil is not very deep and has in places many 
stones in it. It has, however, been found that under irrigation 
it is an excellent place for fruit trees, principally apples, cherries 
and peaches. Accordingly it has been cut up into lots of from 
10 to 40 acres, now selling with water rights at £20 an acre, 
and is becoming rapidly covered with young trees. The water 
is brought some 4 or 5 miles from a point where the river is 
dammed and tapped as it issues from a rocky canyon in the moun- 
tain side. (See Fig. 3.) It is carried in a deep wooden trough open 
at the top, called a flume, for which when the nature of the ground 
permits an open ditch is substituted. Over the running water 
in this trough you can walk on 9-inch planking, rather loosely 
laid, and when this trough is carried over a valley of say 30 ft. 
in depth it forms a picturesque but somewhat dizzy kind of 
promenade. Once down on the Benches it is distributed through 
similar troughs to the various holdings and on them carried in 
temporary little ditches about among the trees. Life on the 
Bench was to us a novel and interesting experience. In one 
of the little wooden houses which are dotted about it we took 
up our abode. The main portion is a single room 16 feet by 



14 Journal of the Manchester Geogfraphical Society 

12, to which was added in anticipation of our visit the flat- 
roofed kitchen 8 feet by 12, and the verandah, where you can 
take your meals in good weather and wash up afterwards. The 
adjoining tent became a bedroom during our visit, and beyond 
it lies a woodshed. Further off is a little stable. We spent a 




Fig. 3. " Head of the Flume, Kelowna." 

delightful week there, and I could talk for a long time about the 
interest of such an experience, but must stop only to warn you 
against supposing that it involved to us visitors any hardship or 
discomfort. For all was made delightful and easy for us, and a 
most kind hospitality was extended to us by the many acquaint- 
ances we made. As one lies awake at home at night listening 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 15 

to the railway whistling and shunting, one longs for the sweet 
air and the peaceful quiet, broken only by an occasional howl of 
the wolves, that we experienced on the Benches. But profoundly 
interesting as it is to see the beginnings of things in such places, 
there is no doubt that it calls for much hard work and patient 
endurance on the part of the settlers. 

The lonely bachelor in his Shack has to learn to do pretty 
nearly everything for himself. He must know how to build his 
own house, to manage his horse — if he has one, — to cultivate his 
land and prune his trees, to cook his food, and if he is to have 
any comfort at all to do a hundred little things for which at 
home he would depend upon others. The resourcefulness which 
men develop under such circumstances was a continual astonish- 
ment to me, in marked contrast with the narrowly specialised 
lines on which most of us live in this country. The bachelor is 
not, however, always alone. Along with the hard work there is 
much genuine sociability, and even the bachelor's shack can 
upon occasion rise to the height of an afternoon tea, when not 
only ladies but babies also are much in evidence. Tou will find 
delicate young married ladies out there upon whom life comes 
even harder than on the men. They can get little or no assist- 
ance either in household work or nursing, so that where they go 
the baby must go along too. I remember well the home of one 
of these ladies, where she lived ^lone with her husband and 
baby, a small wooden house of three or four rooms, very nicely 
kept, where we were entertained at a very pleasant evening meal 
cooked by herself with the baby to mind and the house to make 
presentable. Loneliness and sociability, hard work and eager 
sport, a certain necessary roughness, and a very distinct clinging 
to the refinements of life, a very democratic equality and an 
abounding hospitality, all these are elements in our recollection 
of life at Kelowna and on the Benches. 

It was night when we set forth once more from Sicamous 
on our way through the confused coast Ranges towards the 
Pacific. A tiring night, with little rest and many dreams, for 
we had no proper sleeping accommodation that time, but as 



16 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

light begins at last to grow is it dream or reality that breaks 
upon tired eyes? How many hundreds oi feet, and how awfully 
steeply down below that swollen stream rushes so swiftly towards 
the sea! How short a distance across it and to what soaring 
heights above us rise those rocky walls and inaccessible slopes, 
dull white against the sky! What a mad nightmare of a rail- 
way writhing down such a wild valley, clinging to its almost 
perpendicular sides, winding and twisting around their rugged 
rocks and slippery screes, vaulting their ravines and waterfalls ! 
How soon will this mad dream end in one big plunge down to 
those boiling waters, and — but more light comes and greater 
wakefulness, and we recognise that it is no dream but the great 
canyon of the Thompson River in one of its wildest parts and 
seen in an unusually weird, uncanny light. So one wrote with 
the impression still fresh and with the usual inadequacy of 
description, at once exaggerated and insufficient. Soon the sun 
struck in, and as hour after hour we wound down towards the 
sea, and the Fraser canyon succeeded to the Thompson, new 
elements of beauty and interest were added to the ever changing 
scene. There high above — in places it is said 1,000 ft. above 
the river, crawled and clung along the face of the rock, the 
remains of the old Voyageur's track. Far below one saw perched 
on little promontories Indian villages or burial grounds. Here 
and there an Indian Fishing station, slight structure of branches 
and boughs, overhung the boiling waters. Large bushes of pure 
white Syringa in full bloom or masses of pink and white spireas 
added grace to the savageness of the scene. But you have all 
read about the canyons, and I desist. We saw them again on 
our return under other conditions, in full, quivering, blazing 
sunlight, very beautiful and grand, but it needs the dim light of 
early morning to bring out their full significance of suggestion. 

We never got to the coast, for we were caught and held fast 
in what we fondly call our Dreamland, the dreamland of the 
Harrison River, a tributary of the Fraser, which it joins about 
60 miles from the Pacific. 

It is a dream of leaving the noisy railway and being slowly 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 17 

rowed, one hot June morning, some miles up a broad green 
stream, across a shallow bay into which the stream expands, 
with no sign of house or home ahead ; only a great wood backed 
by lofty cliffs to which the trees cling till they are baulked by 
absolute precipice : of entering a narrow shallow creek of 
marvellously clear water and winding with it slowly in and out 
among low woods and flowering shrubs; of landing at last just 
as the creek seems coming to an end ; of a few steps through the 
wood into a clearing still dotted with monstrous blackened 
stumps waiting to be finally dynamited out ; of a garden patch 
at the end of this and a picturesque wooden house beyond; of 
forest ringing round it all and mountain rising steeply up 
behind. Truly a house beautiful, all wood save plastered walls 
and ceilings, with shaded balconies and cool sitting rooms 
carpeted only with skins of bear and wild cat shot close about 
it, restful bedrooms and even a bathroom — a charming house 
built almost entirely by the Canadian owner and his Swedish 
foreman, with the river for its highway flowing by. A dream 
of a most kindly welcome — of a hostess bright and indefatigable, 
cooking excellent meals for us, bringing them in and then 
presiding over our table as she shares them with us, full of con- 
versation, fun, and interest in us, most cheery of hard-working 
little women. Of a host who in his time has set himself to 
many tasks and now faces the reduction of 1,200 acres of forest 
into the order of a home, a resourceful man full of wonderful 
stories of fishing and hunting and forest craft. 

It is a dream of great trees, soaring above us for 260 even 
300 ft. Cedars, Douglas Firs and Pines, exquisitely beautiful 
in life, grand but rather sad in death ; of fallen monsters whose 
great boles as they lay on the ground, white and shining in 
places where the bark had shaled away, rose well above our 
heads. Of soft thick coating mosses inches deep on their trtinks 
and lichens trailing from their lofty boughs : of lesser trees. 
Maples and Cottonwoods attaining perhaps only a poor 160 ft. 
Of a trail winding away for miles through such a forest, fair 
with many lovely ferns, and here and there the sunlight 



x8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

breaking across the deep shade; of the solemness, and beauty, 
and grandeur of such a f orest, and of late evening wanderings 
in it. 

It is a dream of floating hour after hour upon the swirling 
rapids of the river, skilfully piloted by Auguste, most taciturn 
but reliable of Indians ; of the trout and salmon captured there 
— also of those not caught ; of the great Fish Hawks and Cranes 
that floated round those waters, and of snowy ranges closing up 
the distant views. Of one morning up the River when, owing 
to some strange effect of light, the hills through which its bright 
green flood came pouring down seemed altogether unsubstantial 
and translucent, gateways of a mysterious world ; of passing up 
towards them by an Indian Village, and watching the Indians 
come and go in their light boats, using sail and oar, pole and 
paddle, with equal skill; of one boatload of them gay in the 
brightest of rpd and yellow garments floating down the green 
waters. 

A dream of leaving the river and pushing up an old trail, 
with visions of the " braves " who might have passed that way 
in years gone by, where giant brackens and young cedar growths 
swept our faces and tangled above our heads, leading to a 
wonderful Lake — Garden Lake, — a blue sheet under sunlit cliffs, 
ringed round with noble living trees, backed by an army of the 
whitened stems of Monarchs long since dead, which glowed 
almost fiercely in the tremendous sun : of a midday heat and 
silence there, broken only by the slow drumming of the grouse. 
(See Fig. 4.) 

Another river there was the sweet named Chihalis, that ran 
a fierce course through the woods with a dozen boiling rapids 
in it, from its rocky canyon in the hills down to the main stream, 
and we still dream of a Sunday when the whole household ad- 
journed for dinner on its banks and were shown the cunning 
Indian fishing places. Greatest joy of all perhaps — of being 
slowly poled by our Indian friend in a small and seatless dug-out 
canoe up that wild river to the Canyon in the hills, and then 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 19 

shooting the rapids in a wild rush of descent to the calm waters 
below. 

It is here that in autumn the salmon die by thousands in 
the creeks, and the bears come down in numbers from the moun- 
tains to feed on them ; here that we came a little into touch with 
the Indians and looked some of them up in their encampment 
on the river side and heard a good deal of their life and ways, 




Fig. 4. "Garden Lake, Harrison River." 

here that not even an hotel nor a road, nor a railway was at hand 
to remind us of our normal life. Perhaps you will understand 
why we lingered in our dreamland and did not press on to the 
City of Vancouver. 

We moved east again to the Rockies and took up our 
quarters at Field in the Kicking Horse Valley. The little 
village lies along the line at the foot of Mt. Stephen, a noble 
precipitous mountain which rises some 7,000 feet above the 



20 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

valley level. It is faced on the other side of the Yalley by peaks 
somewhat less lofty but clothed for 3,000 ft. up by dense forests. 
The wild pass of the Kicking Horse, leading to the Great Divide, 
faces us up the stream, and downwards the serrated Yanhome 
Range closes the view. It is a great place, and its luxurious 
hotel makes it a most comfortable one to stay in. A place great 
also in its profusion of lovely flowers. Lilies and Roses, Colum- 
bines, Purple Gentians and Honeysuckle, exquisite Orchids and 
Pyrolas. These are but a few of the beauties which it is so 
delightful to meet with in this savage-looking valley, and which 
you may freely gather as you stroll alongside the milky glacier- 
fed stream, till perhaps you come full in front of the pinnacles of 
Cathedral Mountain, towering above the nearer hills. There is 
at once a special charm and provocation about flower hunting 
in the Rockies, for there is as yet no book to guide you to the 
names, new varieties — even, we are told, new species — are con- 
stantly being found. We were especially fortunate in meeting 
here with Madam Schaefer (a lady who is a great authority on 
the subject, and is engaged on a work illustrating the flora of 
the district), and in being allowed to assist her one day in 
gathering specimens. So please in your imaginations add to 
this wild scenery an exquisite carpeting of lovely flowers. If 
any of you know and love, as those who know it must, the 
Linnea Borealis, think of it as being here in extraordinary pro- 
fusion, clothing the stones and dead logs about the edge of the 
woods with its dainty foliage and lovely pink bells. Notwith- 
standing that you have here a railway and an hotel you may 
judge how thin is the veneer of civilization in these parts, from 
the fact told us by Madam Schaefer that in her expeditions 
hence last year she discovered seven new lakes. 

It was from Field that we made the great excursion of our 
tour, full of, to us, quite novel experiences. Away to the south, 
over the range that faces Mt. Stephen, lies the celebrated Yoho 
Yalley. To see it properly requires three days at least, and 
means covering a distance which I estimate at about 60 miles. 
I say estimate, for the country is not yet properly surveyed, and 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 21 

I could get no map of it. For the first seven miles out of Field 
to an outlying Chalet Hotel on the Emerald Lake, so called from 
its marvellous colour, there is a road through the forest on 
which you may drive. After that there is neither road to drive 
on nor house to sleep in, and one has, in spite of years and 
ignorance, to get oneself on horseback and trust to luck to stick 
there. Please therefore to imagine our cavalcade as it started 
from the Emerald Lake on a morning, alas, too wet to be 
altogether pleasant. First our Guide, a most excellent young 
Englishman, courteous and gentlemanly, ready for anything 
from cooking to managing four lively horses at a time ; with his 
axe and rifle, for there is always a chance of some big game in 
the Yoho. Managing his own steed with on© hand he leads 
the heavily laden pack horse by the other. Then follows the 
lady of the party, then on the fourth your rapidly stiffening 
lecturer. It was not long before a new joy in flowers gave a 
sufficient excuse for dismounting, for the level land at the 
head of the Lake was studded with lovely yellow Cyprifoc- 
diums. Then we slowly climbed the rock wall, that closes 
the Emerald Valley, by a rough and devious track along- 
side a raging mountain stream. Then through a gloomy high- 
lying foreist out on to the eastern side of the Yoho Valley and 
high up above it. The trail here runs close along under the 
Glaciers which crown the Valley side, fording the ice-cold 
streams that flow from them and along slippery screes. And 
still alas ! it rained. Far across the deep Valley we could see 
dim outlines of great mountains, and the glimmer of white snow 
fields, and hear the thunder of a great waterfall booming in the 
distance. Wet as we were, I think we really had only one 
regret, that it was not possible to indulge the growing mania for 
photography. It was all too novel and exciting to take account 
of small discomforts, and when towards evening the weather 
began to clear and we reached our first camp we were indeed as 
wet as you please, but in excellent spirits. 

I should say here that as soon as the melting snows permit, 
two camps are pitched in the Valley and remain for the use of 



22 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

visitors during the summer. We were the first to make use of 
this one. 

It lies on a heathery knoll among spruce firs, about 6,000 ft. 
above sea level. On the one side a tiny green Lake, on the 
other a sharp descent of some hundreds of feet to the Laughing 
Falls Creek which makes continual music on its way to the 
Valley below. Through the trees in front are glimpses of a fine 
glacier set in white peaks among the lifting clouds. Three 
white tents stand pitched among the trees, all fresh and clean 
but undeniably damp. The horses are unsaddled and turned 
loose, the stores, saddles and trappings piled in safety from the 
too curious porcupines, wood is gathered, and a young tree cut 
down. Soon a noble fire is blazing between the tents, such 
limited change of clothing as is possible made, wet things himg 
in the smoke to dry, and the business of cooking commenced. 
It would take too long to tell of that grand dinner, which ranged 
from soup to dessert, laid on a white cloth spread on the ground 
in one tent, of the quantities of white heather and pink calima 
that blossomed around us, of the coming on of the darkness in 
that lonely place, as we piled up the logs and rejoiced in the 
glorious crackling fire, till we betook ourselves to our beds in 
another tent : beds consisting of red blankets spread upon pine 
twigs, warm and comfortable, with even the unusual luxury of 
sheets sent specially for our benefit and aired, more or less, by 
the fire ; of the falling asleep to the sound of many waters. 

Though it treated us to a snow storm at our early breakfast, 
the weather mended next day and became perfect on the third, 
but I cannot go through them in detail. Let me take you to the 
scene of our midday halt next day, passing en route the lovely 
little Shadow Lake. For the most part we rode through forest 
descending to the head of the valley and then up to the great 
glacier which closes it in. Among the woods that reach almost 
to the ice we built a fire, for there were little snow and hail- 
storms about, and the wind came cold o£f the ice fields. Our 
guide was soon busy at his cooking, my wife with her back to 
a tree was making the most of the fire, and the horses tethered 



"A HoUday in the Far West" 23 

behind. It is astonishing how quickly the expert gets a fire 
going and water boiling in any weather. And then came 
glorious sunshine and a few steps from the fireside placed us in 
full view of the Toho Glacier with Mt. Gordon rising behind it 
and the great crevasses shining bright and blue. It was very 
unwillingly that we turned our backs on this scene and plunged 
once more into the forest. 

It is a wonderful valley with noble precipices and fine water- 
falls, dense forests giving on to shining glaciers, white peaks 
above and rushing water below. A valley without a trace of 
cultivation, without a house and without a road. From the 
Thursday morning when we entered to the Saturday afternoon 
when we left it we did not meet any one. But it has a trail that 
carelessly traverses slippery slopes, that sometimes condescends 
to cross water by rough wooden bridges and at others prefers the 
simpler plan of going straight through it : that winds for hours 
among the woods — a black streak inches deep in decaying vege- 
tation and blocked with boulders and fallen trees, where the 
pedestrian is glad to pocket his pride and get on horseback ; that 
takes no account of steepness till you feel that but for the 
Mexican saddle you must slip over your horse's head. Never 
wide enough for two abreast, it takes a special delight in con- 
tracting itself in the steepest places, where you are mistakenly 
apt to iuiagine that you would be more safe on your own fee( 
than on those of your horse, which send the loose stones rattling 
far below. 

Our second camp was pitched near the foot of the great 
Takakaw Fall. Takakaw is Indian for " it is beautiful," and 
beautiful it really is with its plunge of 1,200 ft., though as we 
saw it, it was, owing to cold weather, not so full as usual. Not 
easily shall we forget that night when we sat by the fire till the 
stars came out and listened to its rhythmic roar, nor the next 
perfect morning when in the crisp air we waited till the bright 
sunshine fell upon it to take one more picture. That morning 
was the beginning of a long and memorable day of perfect 
weather and glorious views. You need to linger and pick your 



Z4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

point of view, more than was possible to us, and when you have 
to tumble off your horse, take a picture and scramble on again, 
you do not always find time to make the best choice. I did try 
to operate on horseback, but as I knew even less about riding 
than photography I did not repeat the experiment, and the 
result has not been preserved. 

We left the Toho Valley by the Burgess Pass which descends 
directly on to Field. I do not think I have ever been in a more 




Fig. 5. "Mount Stephen, from Burgess Pass." 



wonderfully beautiful place. It is only some 7,000 ft. high, but 
commands extraordinary views. Looking back in the direction 
whence we had come, we had on the right the rocky summit of 
Mt. Wapta, and in the centre the magnificent mass of the Vice- 
President with its hollows filled with glaciers and crowned with 
snow. The dip in front goes steeply down nearly 3,000 ft. to 
the Emerald Lake, while to the left more distant ranges com- 
plete a magnificent panorama. This side of the Pass alone is 



"A HoUday in the Far West" 25 

sufficient to make for it a great reputation, but if you turn 
around and walk but a few steps across the heather and golden 
lilies which are all about you, you come full in view of Mt. 
Stephen, from his rocky base, by his glacier-swept shoulder, to 
his snowy top, framed in a setting of dark pines. Three thou- 
sand feet below, at the foot of the mountain, lies Field, with its 
white stream and houses, which look like toys; away down the 
valley is a long perspective of noble peaks, above you a cloudless 
sky and brilliant sun, at your feet dense masses of forest cloth- 
ing the steep descent. Such was the scene which closed our 
excursion. (See Fig. 6.) 

Near the point where the rail crosses the watershed of the 
Eockies lie a number of very beautiful lakes bedded in the 
mountains. The best known and much advertised of these go 
by the somewhat fanciful name of the Lakes in the Clouds, a 
series of three lying one above the other. The lowest of them 
is Lake Louise. The water is of an extraordinary bright-green 
colour, which contrasts wonderfully with the snow fields of 
Mt. Victoria which fill in the background. It must have been a 
grand wild place not long ago, but a great hotel now stands on 
its shores and a constant stream of visitors pervades the place. 
It forms a picture almost unnatural in its balance and combina- 
tion of effects and colour, green water, grey rocks, dark pines 
and white snow. From its head you get a fine view of Mt. Lefroy, 
and pushing but a little way up the valley beyond, you come 
quickly to the foot of a great glacier. It is eminently a place 
to be idle in, for luxury has got hold of it, and newly married 
couples are much in evidence there. Tou resign yourself to 
floating about on its green waters, with their marvellous reflec- 
tion, in a lazy manner of which one is disposed to be a little 
ashamed afterwards. 

Pushing up through the woods, on the right — woods much 
haunted by mosquitoes and their allies — for the Upper Lakes, 
we get some very fine near and distant views. The highest of 
the three Lakes — ^Lake Agnes — lies some 1,500 ft. up and is 
reached by an easy path. Around its shores the snow was still 



26 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

plentifully lying at the foot of some noble crags. I think that 
after the novel experience of the Toho Valley we found even 
these lovely Lakes with their grand hotel just a little tame, and 
were not sorry to make one more little plunge into the wilds to 
visit the great Valley of the Ten Peaks. Eleven miles of roughish 
riding from Lake Louise brought us to it, and a very striking 
piece of scenery it is. Here too is another wonderful sheet of 




Fig. 6. "Moraine Lake." 

green water, Moraine Lake, which we had all to ourselves, after 
we had tethered our horses on its lonely shore and left our Guide 
sleeping beside them. (See Fig. 6.) First along a kind of a trail 
by the water side, then through a wilderness of swamp and rock, 
fallen trees and dense scrub, we pushed our way to the head of the 
Lake, and out into the wild Valley beyond, once more all alone, 
with no sounds but the call of strange birds, and the thunder of 
avalanches from the great peaks. And here we stop, for some 
accident during this expedition injured my camera, and though 



"A Holiday in the Far West" 27 

we had one other great day, when from the top of Mt. Fairview, 
4,000 ft. above Lake Louise, we revelled for two short hours in 
a most marvellous view, in which glaciers and snow fields close 
at hand on one side, the great Bow valley stretching at our feet 
with a forest fire raging in the east, and range upon range of 
mountains away to the north, all found a place and made one 
splendid whole, yet my pictures are, alas! all failures, and my 
pen totally inadequate to describe it. Still I am not sure that 
anything would have been more characteristic than this scene 
at the head pf Moraine Lake, which I think conveys some sug- 
gestion of the wildness, the loneliness and the grandeur which 
impressed one so much among these splendid mountains. 

* * * 

TRcvicw- 

*' Geological Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland." By Horace B Woodward, 
F.R.S., F.G.S. London : E. Stanford. 12s. 6d. net. 

This is an excellent lx)ok and well worth a place in the reading matter 
carried by the tourist or travelling commercial gentleman. 

The Geological Maps are splendidly got up and amplified by marginal notes 
on interesting finds together with a Key connection showing the Old and New 
Ordnance maps of the same area. The Plates showing the fossils are excellent 
in every way. 

The general plan of the book is good. A geological survey of the structure 
of Great Britain is first given with illustrative sectional maps. The rock 
formations are then treatea and notes on fossils are added to many of the classes ; 
these notes show the locality and give the number of the plate on which the 
particular fossils appear. Ihe mineral products are placed after this section in 
Alphabetical order and a description of their characteristics and place of 
occurence is given with each. 

The counties are next treated in detail in such a way that the reader is 
interested in the rocks, minerals, fossils, animal remains etc. and reads with 
pleasure the detailed geological matter here brought before his notice. It even 
tells in this section the kind of coast line, rocky, sandy, or shingly at various 
seaside resorts of the maritime counties. 

The last section of the reading matter is a noticeable feature of the book 
and describes the geological features to be seen along the main lines of railway. 
It is a very readable portion and is not loaded up with detail. An index is 

f'ven and the last half of the book is taken up with the maps and plates which 
cannot speak too highly of. The publishers and the author are to be 
congratulated on the production of this book. 

J. H. B. 



28 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



THE HELATION BETWEEN THE GEOGRAPHICAL 
POSITION AND THE PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY OF 
LAND. 

By Edward J. Russell, D.Sc. (Lond.) 

(South- Eastern Agricultuiul College, Wye). 

(Addressed to the Society, in the Geographical Hall, on Tuesday, 
February 19th, 1907, and revised to date.) 

The productive capacity of land may be described in general 
terms as its power to produce a good and profitable crop in 
response to proper cultural and manurial treatment. It is a 
complex quantity, depending on many factors, among which 
the chemical composition of the soil, its physical structure, the 
micro-organisms present, and the geographical position of the 
land, are all of fundamental significance. 

In its widest sense, the relationship between geographical 
position and productive capacity, with which it is proposed to 
deal in this paper, also includes the relationship between geo- 
graphical position and climate, but as this latter belongs to 
another subject it will not be dealt with here. Nor is it pro- 
posed to discuss the effect of distance from market or railway 
on the rent of land for agricultural purposes, since this is not 
essentially different from the parallel case where land is wanted 
for manufacturing purposes. Proximity to a market is an 
important consideration, but proximity to a through route 
is perhaps equally important. The Kent fruit grower who 
has prices wired or telephoned down to him will sometimes find 
it more profitable to send his fruit to Manchester than to 
London, while a south coast watering place may be better than 
either. There is some advantage in being near a waterway. 
The high-class farmer in the home counties buys, if he can, a 
good deal of bulky refuse matter from London — stable manure, 



The Productive Capacity of Land 29 

street sweepings, etc. — and it is an obvious advantage to have 
this barged out. If he is near the rail the cost will be greater, 
but may still leave him a profit, while if he is far from the rail 
the cost of cartage is so heavy as to be quite prohibitive. 

In this paper we are concerned more particularly with the 
effect of aspect, elevation, slope and similar factors on the pro- 
ductiveness of land. The illustrations are drawn mainly from 
Kent and Surrey, and have been gathered in the course of the 
writer's work at the Wye Agricultural College. There is no 
need to go into the complex question as to what constitutes pro- 
ductiveness in land, it is sufficient for the present purpose to 
note that no land can be productive unless it has a sufficient, 
but not excessive water supply, suitable temperature, and shelter 
from excessive wind. These are the three headings under which 
the subject may be arranged. 

Effect of the Position of Land on its Water Supply. 

When rain falls on the surface of the earth, a certain amount 
soaks in and travels downwards, but some follows the slope of 
the land and comes out again at a lower level. The highest 
land receives only the rain which actually falls upon it, the 
lower land not only receives its own proper rainfall but also 
some of the water which has soaked through from above. At 
the bottom of the slope the water supply is at its highest, and 
according to the position of the water level we shall find a river, 
a marsh, or moist productive land. The direction of this under- 
ground flow is shown by the arrows in Fig. 1, they have been 
put in in larger number at the lower levels to indicate the 
increasing amount of water present. 

The effect on productiveness depends somewhat on the nature 
of the soil, and is shown to a marked extent on light sandy or 
chalky soils, which readily allow water to run through, and have 
very little power of retaining it. On the highest land the water 
supply is irregular; it is ample whilst rain is actually falling, 
but may become very deficient shortly afterwards as a result of 
excessive drainage. Such variations in the water supply are 



30 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

not conducive to the growth of any plants, and are not tolerated 
by ordinary farm crops, and in consequence this higher land is 
often left uncultivated either as pasture or as wood, some of it 
indeed has never been enclosed and has always been common. 
Hayes and Keston commons in Kent, Leith Hill, Oxshott, and 
Hindhead in Surrey, are all good instances; from the agri- 
cultural point of view they can only be regarded as waste land, 
however much one may admire the pine and fir trees, the 



A.el 




bracken and the heather they produce. It is perhaps not too 
much to say that the existence of wild romantic regions in 
counties which, like Kent and Surrey, have been highly farmed 
for many years, is mainly due to unsuitability of the water 
supply. Fig. 2, taken by Mr. R. H. Carter in Oxshott Wood, is 
typical of much of this high lying land in Kent and Surrey. 

Another example is furnished by the North Downs and the 
South Downs : where they are not capped with clay the higher 
parts are often too dry to allow of profitable cultivation, though 
the chalk soil, being cool in summer, furnishes healthy, if rather 
scanty, grazing for sheep. 

On a small scale the same effect can often be seen in sandy 
fields; if one part lies higher than the rest it has a smaller 
supply of water and is less likely to be productive. The heavier 



The Productive Capacity of Land 



31 



type of soil technically known as loam does not normally show 
this difference, but in times of drought the higher places suffer 
sooner than the lower ones. 

Coming now to the lower land marked B in Fig. 1, this 
receives, as already mentioned, some of the water which has 
soaked through from above in addition to its own share of rain- 
fall. The soaking process is slow, and makes itself felt for 
some time after the rain has ceased ; in suitable circumstances 




P/toto by R. H. Carter. 

Fig. 2. Coombe Woods, Wimbledon. High land running wild because the 
water supply is too irregular for cultivation. 

the land may not dry out at all. This condition is eminently 
favourable to vegetation, and ordinary farm crops, fruit, and 
hops, may all be grown, in fact some of the most productive land 
in Kent and Surrey is found on slopes of this kind. 

Water soaking through from above is more than pure water, 
it has in passing through the soil dissolved a certain amount of 



32 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

mineral matter — sometimes as much as 0*1 per cent., — part of 
wbieb is valuable plant food. Tbe process constitutes a natural 
subirrigation, and is particularly effective wbere tbe pbjrsical 
texture of tbe soil allows water to be drawn up to tbe roots as 
quickly as required. 

Fig. 3, taken at Wye, sbows very clearly tbe gradual transi- 




Photoby R. H. atrt'.r. 

Fig. 3. Coldharbour Farm and Downs, Wye. Improvement in land in 
passing down a slope, due to increased water supply. The high land is dry, 
and is only wood and poor pasture, lower down (below the white hut at the top 
of the road) the land is better, and lower still fruit can be grown. The dark 
strip of land in the middle is ploughed, the light part above is poor grass, and 
the light part below is producing market garden crops. 

tion from unfavourable to favourable condition of water supply 
in travelling down a slope. Tbe bighest ground is of very little 
value, it can only be used for poor pasture or for plantations, a 
little lower down cultivation becomes possible and farm crops 
appear, still lower down tbe conditions are so improved tbat 



The Productive Capacity of Land 



33 



expensive crops like bops and fruit are possible, and in tbe 
bottom of the view a corner of a fruit garden is seen. 

At the bottom of the slope (C, Fig. 1) the water supply is at 
its highest, and the productiveness of the soil depends on the 
water level. Wherever this is near, but below the surface, the 
land will probably be very fertile even though the soil has so 
little depth that, on the level, it would be unproductive. The 
little valleys in the chalk downs and on the sandstone hills of 
the south-eastern counties are often cultivated, while the higher 




Photo by R. H, Carter. 
Fig. 4. The Stour, Wye. Marsh land, excessive water supply. 

part lies barren, and even where the valley is too small to make 
cultivation profitable the grass has a fresher and greener colour 
than elsewhere. 

If the water level rises to the surface the soil becomes water- 
logged and a marsh is formed which is quite unsuited for cul- 
tivation of ordinary crops, though special crops like osiers may 
do well. A luxurious growth of grass is commonly produced in 
summer time, and marsh land is, for that reason, very useful for 





34 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

hay and for sheep and cattle, notwithstanding the fact that it 
is unhealthy unless drained. Fig. 4 shows a typical marsh scene. 
One effect of rain on a slope is to wash the finest soil particles, 
the silt and clay, downwards, and in the course of ages the 
valley receives so much of these that the nature of its soil 
changes, the texture becomes finer, and there is a better power 
of retaining water. In consequence, the effects now under 
discussion are intensified. The proverbial fertility of valleys 
may therefore be ascribed to three causes : the percolation of 
water, the transference of soluble matter from the higher to the 
lower ground, and the downwash of fine soil particles. The 
higher ground is slowly but continuously impoverished, while 
the lower tends to gain in productiveness. The general rule is 
that the highest ground forms poor pasture or woodland, almost 
useless for agricultural purposes though often affording very 
beautiful scenery; lower down cultivation becomes profitable, 
and valuable crops may be grown, whilst at the bottom of the 
slope the land may either be very fertile or marshy, according 
to the position of the water table. The scenery on the lower 
elopes is generally distinctly pastoral in type. 

In applying the rule it must always be remembered that too 
much water is just as fatal to plant growth as too little. If the 
bottom land is marshy it will not permit the growth of ordinary 
crops. A wet clay soil may, for the same reason, show a re- 
versal of the order given above, the ridges and banks being 
fertile and the bottoms infertile. It sometimes happens, also, 
that the transference of soluble matter from the higher to the 
lower ground leads to an excessive accumulation of salts in the 
soil, fatal to plant growth. This effect is rare in England, but 
is not uncommon in California, where the summers are drier 
than ours, and evaporation from the soil is greater. Hilgard ^ 
states that considerable damage is done by irrigation water 
soaking from the higher ground into the valleys; orchards 
and vineyards have sickened and died, and land which naturally 

1. Soils, p. 230. 



The Productive Capacity of Land 35 

produced meet luxurious crops has been ruined through im- 
proper irrigation of higher land. " Extensive areas of lands 
which, when first irrigated, were among the most productive, 
have in the course of eight or ten years become almost valueless 
to their owners, to whom legislation thus far affords but distant 
promise of relief; although the case seems in equity to fall 
clearly within the limits of the laws governing trespass/' ^ 

These cases do not in reality constitute exceptions to the 
general rule, they are only the results of the extreme effects 
which may be produced under special circumstances. Complica- 
tions are introduced if a stratum of impermeable clay or rock 
crops out somewhere on the slope, but the same fundamental 

principles hold. 

Effect of Wind. 

Wind has a considerable effect both on the soil and on the 
crop, consequently land subject to strong gales is not well 
adapted to crop production. The tops of hills are often barren. 
Cidtivation is often restricted on the coast to sheltered situa- 
tions, the more exposed places of 'necessity lying waste ; ex- 
ceptions frequently occur where the coast land 'is not too high. 
Thanet and Bomney marsh in Kent, and parts of Lincolnshire 
are extremely fertile, though much wind swept. 

Where the wind is less severe its effect may be simply to re- 
duce and retard the crop ; the result depends on the temperature 
and velocity of the wind and the season at which it appears, but 
generally speaking a north or north-east wind is more serious 
than one from the south, because it causes a lowering of tempera- 
ture in addition to its bruising effect on the foliage. Land 
sheltered from the north may be expected to produce earlier 
crops than more exposed land. 

Effect of PosmoN of Land on its Temperatuee. 
The influence of elevation. As a rule the higher one ascends 
the lower becomes the temperature, and above a certain height 
the general coldness, together with the liability to strong winds, 
1. Ibidem, p. 231. 



36 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

produce bo adverse an effect on plant life that most crops suffer, 
and some will not grow at all. The older agriculturalists con- 
sidered 500 ft. to be the limit for the cultivation of wheat and 
600 to 800 for barley, but with modem methods of cultivation 
and management these figures could be exceeded. It is gener- 
ally supposed in Kent that hops cannot be produced on ground 
lying 500 ft. above sea level, and certainly they are not. Hazel 
nuts are grown at this height and constitute a valuable crop^ 
but as a rule this high land is either wood or waste even where 
the soil is good and of such a nature that the water supply is 
satisfactory. 

The rule requires some modification when the elevation is 
not too high. Comparing two stations, one situated in the 
valley, and the other 200 ft. or more up the slope, the lower one is 
hotter by day, but almost equally cold, sometimes, in fact, colder, 
by night. Observations along such a slope, about one mile in 
length, on the farm of the Wye Agricultural College, bring out 
very clearly the fact that the temperature fluctuations in the 
valley are much greater than those above. 

Table I. 

Average temperatures, 14th April to 11th May, 1907. 

Top station. Bottom station. 
Altitude. Altitude. 

Maximum 57*1** 61*8** 

Minimum 38*2^ 35-9* 



Total variation 189^ 259° 

Difference in maximum readings 4*7°. 
Difference in minimum readings 2*3°. 

It is more especially when there is no wind and few clouds 
that the minimum temperature is lower in the valley than on 
the higher ground. The cause of this is well understood. On 
a clear night radiation from the earth is unchecked and the 
temperature falls: the layer of air near the ground is cooled, it 



The Productive Capacity of Land 37 

increases in density and tends to roll down the slope and collect 
in the valleys. Here it displaces the warm air, which, being 
lighter, rises and flows over the upper slopes from whence the 
cold air has come, keeping these slopes at a higher temperature 
than the lower ones. In Fig. 5 the short thin arrows indicate 
the downward driit and accumulation of the cold air, and the 
long thick ones show the upward movement of the warm air; 
the results of the Wye measurements are given in Table 2. 

Table II. 

Average minimum temperatures, still clear nights only, 
April and May, 1907. 

Top station 38-2^ 

Bottom station 32*6*' 

Excess at top station 5*6° 




On these clear nights the bottom station was considerably 
colder than the higher one, the average difference in temperature 
being 6-6°F. 

The case is a little more complex if a river flows through 
the valley, for it is then found that the air is warmer on the 
bank than further off. Headings taken at Wye show this 
clearly. 



38 Journal of the Manchester Ge<^gnraiihical Society 

Table III. 

Average temperatures all nights, 14tli April to llth May, 1907. 

Brink of river. 66 yards away. 

Station 7 ... 8 ... 6 

Minimum 38' VF. ... 37-2°F. ... 35-9^F. 

Excess over 6 .... 2-9°F. ... TS^F. ... — 

Station 7 is situated at the junction of the river with a 
stream, and station 8 is on the straight bank of the river; the 
protection is naturally greater in the former than in the latter 
case. 

For still nights only the temperature difference is very much 
the same (see Table 4). This protective influence increases with 
the width of the river and is greater at a bend than on a straight 
stretch, it may be attributed either to the favourable influence 
of a mass of water on the temperature, or to the drift of air 
consequent on the flow of the river: probably both causes 
operate. 

These various temperature relationships are summarised in 
Table 4, which gives the average minimum readings at all the 
stations on the slope from 14th April to llth May, 1907. 





Table IV. 








Min'm. Temp. 


Min'm. Temp. 




Height above 


Average of all 


Average of stiU 




sea level. 


nights. 


nights only. 


station No. 


Feet. 


Ground. 


Ground. 


1 


675-71 


38-2 


38-2 


2 


285-84 


37-8 


37-4 


3 


232-84 


38-0 


37-5 


4 


174-87 


— 


370 


5 


119-84 


36-8 


34-6 


6 


97-49 


35-9 


32-6 


7 . ... 


95-02 


38-1 


35-46 


8 


97-46 


37-2 


34-1 



The Productive Capacity of Land 39 

It is highly desirable that these determinations should be 
repeated in other districts, and also that soil temperature read- 
ings should be taken at various altitudes. 

A little consideration will show that for tender crops land 
round stations 3, 4, or 5 is more valuable than land either higher 
up or lower down ; 1 and 2 suffer from a defective water supply, 
and 6 from larger temperature fluctuations and greater degree 
of cold. If the mass of water is great the protected strip along 
its edge may be wide enough for cultivation, forming a belt of 
land more valuable than that round 6. This difference is of 
great practical importance in late spring and in early autumn, 
when the temperature at night sinks to near the freezing point 
on the higher ground; it often falls below it on the lower 
ground. 

One of the worst accidents that can happen to a fruit grower 
is a frost coming after the blossom is out and before it has set : 
during this period such a frost may in a couple of hours do 
hundreds of pounds worth of damage in a fruit district. Early 
potatoes are also liable to suffer, the tender shoots which come 
through in April and May are very sensitive to frost. Low- 
lying land is usually avoided for both these crops, and higher 
land used instead. 

The protective influence of a mass of water is well seen along 
the North Kent coast. The Isle of Grain is less liable to frost, 
and therefore more suited to early potatoes, than the Hundred 
of Hoo, situated a little further from the water.^ Fruit close to 
the coast suffers less than that a little inland. It is noticed in 
Worcestershire that strips of gardens within 50 yards of the 
river Avon suffer less than gardens at a greater distance, whilst 
in California the influence of a river is so well recognised that 
land along the bank, and particularly at a bend, where, of 

1. It is said that the difference was formerly greater than it is now, but I 
cannot give any explanation of the change, if it has occilrred. The difference is 
most striking if there is an East or North-East wind coming off the sea; if the 
wind is North or North- West the difference is less. 



40 Journal of the ICanchcster Geographical Society 

course, the effect is intensified, is said to be of higher value than 
land elsewhere. 

Fig. 6 shows diagramatically the area subject to late frosts 
coming in between two areas not so liable to them ; it would be 
avoided for fruit and potatoes, the crops most liable to suffer 
from late spring frosts, but would be quite useful for ordinary 
farm crops and for hops which are not injured by such frosts, in 
fact owing to its higher water supply it would probably be most 




0**lj,cl- fe U-h^ ^^r«*a*,l c«^y Out\»mn. |f 



•Vof % •"!% ^ K r%o 



llQ e. 



valuable for these crops. We can thus understand and justify 
the Kent saying: 

" Grow hops in the valley, fruit on the hill." 

The early autumn frosts are not of as great practical im- 
portance as those of spring, but the effects can be well seen in 
flower gardens. The dahlias were last autumn killed in a 
garden level with station 4 on October 12th, whilst those in a 
garden level with station 2 lived till October 22nd. 

Influence of aspect. It is a matter of common experience 
that a south slope is warmer than a north slope, and in summer 
time the difference in temperature is often very marked even 



The Productive Capacity of Land 41 

when the difference in slope is not great. This effect is partly 
due to the shelter afforded from cold north winds, partly to the 
longer hours of sunshine, but mainly to the fact that the sun's 
rays are spread over a smaller area, and so exert a greater heat- 
ing effect, on the south than on the north side. Temperature 
readings at Wye, taken during several days in August, 1906, on 
an artificial mound sloping slightly to the north and the south, 
gave as averages : 

North side. South side. Excess on south side. 

66° 70° 4° 

The readings were taken at noon. 

On a south slope plants begin to grow early in the spring, 
they make rapid progress throughout the season, and as the soil 
becomes dryer they ripen and are ready for market some days 
or even weeks before those grown on a north slope. Early crops 
command a higher price than late ones, provided they do not 
come before the public is ready to buy, but as the days go on the 
price falls very rapidly. Table 5 shows this progressive drop in 
the price of strawberries and of potatoes, two crops which are 
affected very much in this way. 

Table V. 

Progressive fall in price of strawberries. 

Covent Oarden average 1901 — 6. 

June 1st week Is. to Is. 6d. per lb. 

„ 2nd „ Sd.tolOd. „ 

„ 3rd „ 4d. to 6d. „ 

„ 4th „ 3d. to 4d. „ 

July 1st „ l^d.to2d. „ 

Special qualities during July commanded a higher price. 

The prices of Jersey potatoes during the 1906 season were : 

s. d. 

April 30th 26 9 per cent. 

May 2nd 27 6 

4th 20 

7th 20 

9th 18 9 

10th 16 10 

12th 14 4 



42 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

English potatoes come in later, but their price falls in 
exactly the same way. In 1906 the prices received for exactly 
the same quality of potato were : 

£ s. d. 

July 17th 5 per ton. 

„ 19th 4 15 „ 

„ 23rd 4 10 „ 

„ 26th 4 „ 

An average drop of over 2s. a day. 

Quite a small difference in position would have sufficed to 
determine whether the crop had been ready to market on the 
23rd or on the 26th of July, but this difference would have 
been worth 10s. per ton or about £3 per acre. In districts where 
it is possible to produce crops in time for the early high prices 
the advantage of a south slope is well recognised, and in Jersey 
the rent of a south slope may be as high as £15 per acre while 
the north slope is let for much less, in fact much land facing 
north is uncultivated and produces only gorse and timber. 
This, however, is an exceptional instance; in the southern 
English counties the north side has its compensation which on 
a mixed farm lessen the difference in value. It is cooler and 
moister : growth starts later and is slower, but continues for a 
longer time than on the south side. The crop ripens later and 
so fetches a smaller price per ton, but the yield is greater and 
the total profit may be as high as if the crop had grown on the 
south side. On light grass land a south slope may be a positive 
disadvantage, the ground dries up in a dry summer, and towards 
the end of August or the beginning of September the grass may 
all be scorched. Even fruit farmers do not agree that a south 
slope is an unmixed blessing; it is often considered that fruit 
grown on a south slope suffers greater injury from late frosts 
than fruit growing on a north slope. 

* • * 



Proceedings 43 

procccMnfi0 of tbc Society?* 

January Ist to March 31st, 1907. 

The 742nd Meetmg of the Society was held in the Geographical Hall on 
Saturday, January 5th, 1907, in the form of a Party for the Children of the 
Members. 

The Victorians received their guests from 5 p.m. to 5-15 p.m., and the 
reception was followed by Musical and other games. 

At 6 p.m. Mr. Harold Feber showed some very interesting Cinematograph 
Pictures of various parts of the British Empire. Afterwards he showed a 
series of Amusing Scenes, which were enjoyed very much by all present. 

From 7-15 p.m. Games were again indulged in; light refreshments being 
served in the Members' Boom. 

At 8 p.m. Mr. J. Howard Beed, F.R.G.S., took the chair, supported on the 
platform by his fellow- Victorians. Mr. C. A. Ckirke, Hon. Sec, read the 
Beport of the Hon. Examiner, Mr. J. D. Wilde, M.A. (see Annual Beport for 
1906), and Mrs. Eli Sowerbutts presented the prizes. The Society is indebted 
to Mr. J. P. Hughes and to Dr. W. J. Hoyten for kindly providing most of the 
prizes and awards of merit. Mrs. Sowerbutts, with the help of the Victorians, 
cut and distributed the Christmas Cake, which was again kindly given by 
Professor B. W. Swallow, B.Sc., of Tai Yuan fu, China. 

A hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Harold Feber, Mrs. Eli 
Sowerbutts, Mrs. Harry Sowerbutts, Mrs. Newlove, Mrs. Ward, the Misses 
Newlove, and other helpers, for their kind assistance. 

After more games and dancing, the children sang "Auld Lang Syne " under 
the leadership of Councillor Snaddon, and thus ended a very successful evening. 



The 743rd Meeting of the Society was held in the Geographical Hall, on 
Tuesday, January 8th, 1907, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Egbert Steinthal. 

The Minutes of the Meetings held on December 11th and 18th and 
January 5th were approved. 

The Election of the following Members was announced by Mr. J. Howard 
Beed, F.B.G.S., Honorary Secretary. Ordinary : Miss M. A. Lea, Miss Buth 
Taylor, Messrs. H. L. Price, F.S.A.A., Julius Stott and Peter Colliver, 
Professors T. F. Tout, M.A. and F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., Messrs. James Williams, 
Alfred Darbyshire and C. B. Byles. Associate : Mr. John E. Southern. 

Mr. Beed then appealed to the Members present for further nominations, 
which were necessary in view of the Financial condition of the Society. 

The Chairman introduced Mr. John Dendy, who gave an account of 
"A Holiday in the Far West,*' with original Lantern Slides, illustrating the 
Scenery of the Rockies and British Columbia. (See page 1). 

A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Dendy for his very interesting address was 
moved by Mr. Wm. Harper, seconded by Mr. B. G. Burton, and carried 
unanimously with acclamation. 



44 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The 744th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 15th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. E. W. Mellor, J.P., F,R.G.S., and afterwards 
Mr. C. A. Clarke. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 8th were approved. 

It was announced that Mr. A. Balmforth had become a Life Member. 

The Chairman introduced Mr. Angus A. G. Tulloch, who explained the 
formation, etc., of Glaciers, and described some "Views taken on Glaciers and 
round Mount Vesuvius." 

A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Tulloch for his clear explanation and for 
the fine views shown was moved by Mr. G«orge Ginger, seconded by Mr. 
David A. Little, and passed unanimously. 



The 745th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 22nd, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. David A. Little. 

The Election of Mr. A. V. Vallanoe as an Ordinary Member was announced. 

The Chairman introduced the Rev. A. W. Fox, M.A., who gave an account 
of his experiences in the County of Kerry under the title of "A Fortnight 
in Dingle." 

The Lecture was illustrated with Lantern Slides, mostly taken by Mr. George 
Higenbottam, who accompanied the Lecturer. 

A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Fox for his very interesting, instructive, 
and amusing address, was moved by Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., seconded 
by Mr. A. Balmforth, and carried unanimously. 



The 746th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, January 29th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Henry Forsyth. 

The minutes of the Meeting held on January 22nd were approved. 

The deaths of Mr. Joseph Broome, J. P., one of the Original Members of 
the Society, and of Mr. H. H. Summerskill, were announced, and it was 
resolved that the Assistant Secretary convey to their relatives, the regret and 
sympathy of those present with them in their bereavement. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., gave an account of his experiences as 
delegate " In York with the British Association." His address was illustrated 
by some fine lantern slides, lent by Mr. T. P. Cooper, of York, and by Mr. 
Harold Feber. 

On the proposition of the Chairman, a vote of thanks to Mr. Reed was 
passed unanimously, and suitably acknowledged by him. 



The 747th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 5th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. F. Zimmem. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on January 29th, 1907, were approved. 

The death of Mr. W. Angelo Waddington, a member of the Society, and 
a former member of the Council, was announced. It was resolved that the 
Assistant Secretary convey to his relatives an expression of the sympathy of 
the members with them in their loss. 



Proceedings 45 

Mr. George Ginger gave an account of a yisit to "Sonny Sicily." The 
address was illustrated with lantern slides. 

The Chairman proposed the thanks of the meeting to Mr. Ginger for his 
very interesting address, and the resolution was passed unanimously. 



The 748th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 12th, 
1907, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. R. Cobden Phillips. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 5th, 1907, were taken as 
read. 

The Election of the following New Members was announced. Ordinary : 
Messrs. D. B. Paterson, junr., and J. D. Calder; Associate : Miss £. Smith. 

The death of Mr. H. M. Langley, Consul for Bolivia and Salvador, was 
mentioned. The Chairman reminded those present that Mr. Langley was one 
of the Original Members of the Society, and also helped to inaugurate the 
Society by joining the Provisional Committee formed in 1884 for this purpose. 
A resolution of sympathy with his relatives in their bereavement was passed. 

The Rev. H. J. Rossington, M.A., described "A Tour in the Austrian 
Tyrol." The address was illustrated with a splendid set of Lantern Slides. 

The Chairman proposed that the thanks of the Meeting be given to the 
Lecturer for the very interesting account of his journey so well illustrated, 
and it was passed unanimously. 



The 749th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, February 19th, 
1907, at 1-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 12th were approved. 

The election of Messrs. J. W. O'Leary and A. W. Moore as Ordinary 
Members was announced. 

Mr. E. J. Russell, D.Sc., of the South Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, 
Kent, gave an address on "The Relation between the Geographical Position 
and the Agricultural Value of Land." (See page 28.) The address was illus- 
trated with some very fine Lantern Slides. 

The thanks ^f the Meeting were passed to Dr. Russell for his very 
interesting and instructive address. 



The 750th Ordinary Meeting, held on Tuesday, February 26th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. C. A. Clarke. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on February 19th, were taken as read. 

On the motion of the Chairman a resolution was passed that the sympathy 
of the members present with the Mayor of Salford in his bereavement (the 
loss of his son in the sinking of the s.s. "Berlin") be conveyed to him. 

Mr. Charles B. Howdill, A.R.I. B. A., described some of his experiences in 
"Corsica," the Isle of Unrest. 

The Address was illustrated with Lantern Slides taken by the Lecturer. 

The thanks of the Meeting were passed to Mr. Howdill for his very. interest- 
ing address. 



1 



46 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

A Meeting was held in the Manchester Town Hall on Tuesday, March 5th, 
1907, at 8 p.m., under the presidency of the Lord Mayor, and under the 
auspices of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, Manchester Geographical 
Society, and the Directors of the Manchester Ship Canal. 

The Hon. C. H. Rason, Agent-General for Western Australia, delivered a 
Lecture on "Western Australia, its Possibilities and Prospects." 

At the close of Mr. Rason's Lecture, Mr. E. T. Scammell, F.B.6.S., 
described a splendid set of Slides of Western Australia. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., moved, Mr. Alderman McDougall seconded, 
and it was unanimously resolved that a hearty vote of thanks be passed to 
Mr. Rason for his interesting address, and to Mr. Scammell for the slides. 

On the motion of the Hon. C. H. Rason, the thanks of the meeting was 
given to the Lord Mayor and to the Town Hall Committee. 



The 751st Meeting of the Society was held on Wednesday, March 6th, 
1907, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. McFarlane, M.A. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on February 26th, were taken as read. 

Mr. Hilaire Belloc, M.P., addressed the Members on "The Influence of 
Physical Geography on the Destiny of Nations." The address was illustrated 
with Lantern Slides. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Belloc for his very interesting address was 
passed unanimously on the proposition of the Chairman. 



The 752nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 12th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, A.S.A.A. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 6th, 1907, were approved. 

Mr. H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S., gave an account of a recent visit to "The 
Fjords of Norway." The address was illustrated with original Lantern 
SUdes. 

On the proposition of the Chairman a cordial vote of thanks was given to 
Mr. Martin for his very interesting address. 



The 753rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 19th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of Salf ord. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 12th were approved. 

The death of Mr. W. F. Bro¥mrigg was mentioned, and a resolution of 
sympathy with his relatives was unanimously passed. 

The election of the following New Members was announced : Ordinary : 
Messrs. B. Hobson, M.Sc., W. J. Deeley, B.A., A. W. Longden, and G. F. 
Dearden. Associate : Miss Newton. 

Mr. H. R. Sykes, M.A., F.R.G.S., gave an account of his journey across 
" The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia," first discussing the probable formation, 
etc., of Deserts. The address was illustrated with a splendid set of Slides, 
taken by Mr. Sykes during his travels. 

Mr. Bernard Hobson, M.Sc., in moving a vote of thanks to the Lecturer 



Proceedings . 47 

for his interesting address, discussed the questions raised by Mr. Sykes, with 
whom he did not agree as to the causes of deserts. 

Mr. J. McFarlane, M.A., seconded the vote of thanks and expressed the 
opinion that the subject required further discussion and information as the 
exact meteorological condition of the place as a basis for such discussion. 

Mr. Sykes replied to Mr. Hobson's remarks as far as time allowed, and 
the meeting closed with a vote of thanks to the Chairman, moved by Mr. J. 
Howard Beed and seconded by Mr. F. Zinmiem. 



The 754th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, March 26th, 1907, 
at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Charles A. Clarke. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 19th, were taken as read. 

The Rt. Hon. Lord Hindlip (in the absence through ilhiess of Mr. W. P. 
James Fawcus) gave a very interesting account of the progress of British East 
Africa, and of his experiences while travelling in that region. The address was 
illustrated with a set of very fine lantern slides. 

A hearty vote of thanks to the Lecturer for his very interesting and in- 
structive address was moved by Mr. F. Zimmem, seconded by Mr. J. Howard 
Beed, F.B.G.S., and carried unanimously. 



" The Tourist's India." By Eustace Beynolds-Ball, F.B.G.S., F.B.C.I. With 
Map and 28 Illustrations. London : Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd., 
1907. 

On the fly leaf of his book the author quotes the Persian proverb : "A 
traveller without observation is a bird without wings." To have quoted such 
a saying and not to have carried it out to the letter would have been audacious 
of any author, but the author of ** The Tourist's India " observed and wrote as 
he saw, and he saw to the uttermost. No stone therefore can be cast at him 
for quoting a precept and omitting the example. 

'Tis true the usual course to "do India" is adopted, and towns selected 
which all authors of travel books of India tell their fellow tourists to select, 
yet each visit forms a whole. Historical events and features are noted in an 
impressionable manner. Nature is described not in lengthy word painting but 
with graphic brevity and skill. Tribute is paid to the deserving and blame 
meted to the short-sighted statesman. Traditions are ruthlessly destroyed. 
Facts, bare facts, are what the author has aimed at recording, and though 
much that has been held as fascinatingly true is exposed as untrue by logic and 
argument, the romantic side of life in India has nevertheless not suffered. 

Such prosaic matters as hotel tariffs, prices of curios, dates, religious sects, 
etc., are mentioned, but they pass in such quick succession that one is never 
weary of reading. To the intending Indian tourist the work will be valuable 
as a handbook. To the book collector it will be with its handsome binding no 
insignificant ornament to his shelves and not less valuable as a book of interest- 
ing reference. E. E. L. 



48 Journal of the Manchester Geognvhkal Socie^ 

" Our Own Islands : " an elementary stndy in Geogranhy. By J. H. Maeldnder, 
M. A. London : Geor|ce Philips Je Son. 
The author of " Britain and the Britinh Seas" has added to his repatation as 
a teacher of Geography in the work jnst published. Thoagfa written for school 
children, *' Our Own IsUnds " will he leaa alike for pleasore and profit hy thoee 
of more advanced years. It is one of the most interesting works that conld he 
put into the hands of a child, and there is very little in it that he wonld fail to 
understand for himself. The maps, which form an important feature of the 
book, are clear, unburdened with details and very realisUe. The illustrations 
are good, and on the whole pertinent, but surely Mr. Mackinder does not imMne 
that all Highlanders wear lults, carry dirks, and play bagpipes. J. McF. 

" A Junior Course of Comparative Geography." By P. H. L'Estraage, B. A. 

London : George Phuip & Son. 1907. 

''Philip^s Progressive Atlas of Comparative GeograE^iy." Edited by P. H. 

L' Estrange, B. A. London : George Philips & Son. 

Tills book with the accompanying atlas indicates that much more attention 
is now being given to Creoffraphy as part of the school curriculum. At the same 
time it may lie c^uestioned how far the method here adopted of presenting the 
subject to the juvenile mind is likely to prove suoce»fuL Tue information 
given does not always seem suitable for chilaren of the age of thoee for whom 
the course is intended. Sometimes, too, the maps and diagrams are over- 
burdened with detail and do not convey any precise meaning. The book will, 
however, we think be useful to the teacher, as it contains many valuable 
suggestions for his work. 

The atlas might be considerably improved both in execution and in the 
arrangement of the maps. A map of Europe, for example, which does not show 
at a glance the relative elevations of its different mountain systems will ne\'er 
enable the pupils to visualise that continent ; and a set of maps for Australia 
arranged together, showing the connection between physical features, climate and 
vegetation, would, we fancy, be more suggestive to the young student than the 
arrangement here adopted. On the other hand, there are many excellent 
features, and the climatic maps are specially interesting. J. McF. 

*' Gambia." Reproduced from the work of the Anglo-Fronch Boundary Com- 
niiHsion 10()4-5. Scale ifoNmn. Two sheets. Topographical section. 
(*eneral staff. 

** Uganda." Sheets 86A, 86-6, 86-E, 86-F, 86-1, 86-M, 86-N. Scale >iA»<. 
Topographical section. General staff. 

** Caucasia." 32 miles to an inch. Topographical section. General staff. 

''Turkey." Adrianople sheet ii<A>«a. Top<^graphical section. General staff. 

We are indebted to Mr. Edward Stanford for the above maps, which are 
both interesting and valuable. 

Those of Uganda M-ill be of considerable service to members of the Society 
who are interested in that country. Though provisional in character and some- 
what rough in execution they enable us to real hie more successfully the nature 
of the land. 

The maps of the Gambia are reproduced from the work of the Anglo-French 
Boundary ComniiHsion. They show very clearly the surface features of the 
land and indicate the nature of its economic products. 

The map of Caucasia is in places somewhat indistinct in its delineations of 
the orograpny of that region. At the same time it shows clearly the geo^i^phical 
factors in the distribution of towns, communications, etc., and it might Mith 
advantage be used in schools, besides being of more general use. 

The Adrianople sheet indicates elevation by a combination of colouring and 
rough contouring, and gives a satisfactory representation of the country. 

J . McF. 



CDe Journal 




OF THE 

maticbester fieoarapblcal Societp. 

* * * 

A GLIMPSE AT WESTERN CHINA: 

THE PROVINCE OF SHANSI. 

By R. W. Swallow, B.Sc, of Shaiisi University, Tai Yuan Fu. 

(Portion of an Address delivered to the Society in the Geo- 
graphical Hall, on Friday, February 16th, 1906.) 

The Province of Shansi, or, as its name signifies, West of the 
Mountains, is one of the least known parts of China. It is shut 
out from the busy and populous provinces of Chili and Honan 
by huge mountain ranges, and on the South and West is 
bounded by the Yellow River. The journey over the passes is 
a very arduous one, and was never attempted except for very 
special reasons. I personally have gone into the province by 
five different routes, and each one has seemed to be more difficult 
than the others. 

The result of these natural boundaries has been that the 
province has been shut off from the rest of the world, and the 
people are considered to be the most conservative of a very 
conservative empire. Politically Shansi has played a very 
small part in the destinies of the country, though the Chinese 
race had its origin on its Southern border. In fact several 
cities in that part of the province have been at one time and 
another the capital of the country and Tai Yuan Fu held that 
proud position for a few months in ancient times. 

However great was the glory of the province in the ancient 
times it has little of its former grandeur left, and in the words 
Vol. XXIIL No. 2, 1907. 



50 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

of the Chinese has suffered by the decrees of Heaven. The Tai 
Ping rebellion depopulated much of the Southern portion, and 
in the second and third years of Knang Hsii, the present 
emperor, it was subjected to a terrible famine. For three years 
in succession the harvest failed, and there was nothing left for 
the people to eat. The trees were stripped of their leaves, the 
grasses of the field were torn up and eaten, and when they gave 
out cannibalism with all its horrors stepped in. Children were 
sold for a few cash, and in many instances given away, and the 
courts of justice were so deserted that the officials did not see 
anyone ior weeks at a time. Corn came in from all sides, but so 
great were the difficulties of transport that its price was pro- 
hibitive to all except a few rich people. With the famine came 
plague, and from eight to ten millions of people perished. Yet 
for all this there was no rebellion and little disturbance, and it 
was truly said that the Shansi people knew how to die. Since 
those terrible days the condition of the people has improved 
considerably, but ruined towns and villages still remind us of 
that time, and cause us to understand the happiness of the 
people whenever the rain falls plentifully. 

It was not until the journey of Baron Richthofen that the 
world at large knew that Shansi was the centre of the richest 
coal field in the world, and that there were other gigantic 
mineral deposits waiting to be developed. One or two people 
attempted to get concessions, but they met with little success, 
and the difficulties of transport were so great that no definite 
attempt was made to open up the country. Before long the 
world forgot about Shansi, and though the Governor Yu Hsien 
killed fifty missionaries in 1900 in Tai Yuan Fu, the provincial 
capital, the news created little sensation, as the whole attention 
of Europe and America was fixed on the relief of the Legations. 
In 1900 over one million of the people in the Province died 
of cholera, but even this was allowed to pass unnoticed, and the 
old Westerners, as they are called, moved along in their calm, 
slow manner, and accepted this new trouble with stoical in- 
difference. They refused to eat melons, as they were declared 



A Glimpse at Western China 51 

to be dangerous, but they did nothing else to prevent the spread 
of the disease. 

The physical features of the province are decidedly interest- 
ing, and in many respects unique. The greater part of the 
country is occupied by gaunt treeless mountains, and between 
the ranges are loess or yellow dust plains and loess hills. The 
mountains rise abruptly from the plain and are almost useless 
for cultivation, though here and there a few poverty-stricken 
people scratch at the surface and plant seeds hoping to get a 
small crop if the season happens to be a favourable one. The 
loess land is, however, very rich if it is well watered, but the 
scarcity of rain is a great drawback, and bad crops are the rule 
rather than the exception. The loess is exceedingly dry, and 
soaks up the moisture like a sponge. On the hills the loess takes 
the most fantastic forms and gives rise to a veiy peculiar kind 
of scenery. In one place the road is between cliffs fifty and 
sixty feet high, and a little further on it runs by the side of an 
enormous ravine. The loess formation is easily destroyed by 
rain, and the vertical cleavages are so frequent that the enor- 
mous cliffs of one year may in the next few years be represented 
by one or two solitary pinnacles which in their turn fall away 
when the next rain comes. These loess hills often take the 
shape of terraces, and rise up one after the other until they are 
almost as high as the surrounding mountains. In fact the 
.yellow dry dust dominates everything. When there is a wind 
clouds of it fill the air and enter every nook and cranny. The 
rivers are laden with it, and as they rush along in their wild, 
uncertain way, they deposit .their burden and speedily fill up 
their channels, so that in a few years they change their courses 
and become useless for navigation. In the summer the sun 
shines on the dusty plain, and the reflected heat makes the air 
close and stifling, while in the winter one sees nothing but an 
endless stretch of bare yellow country. 

Tai Yuan Fu, the provincial capital, stands in the centre of 
a large plain, which runs North and South between two ranges 
of mountains. This plain is the most prosperous part of the 



52 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

province and is studded with numerous villages and a fair 
number of Hsien or small walled cities. The houses in this 
part are said to be superior to those of any other part of China, 
and some of them look very imposing with their high brick 
walls, square towers, and ornamented gateways. It is true a 
closer view is often very disappointing, but they are, on the 
whole, much more substantial than the majority of Chinese 
houses. The reason of this is, that this district is the home of 
the chief bankers of the Empire, and though the people at large 
are not wealthy, still there are large numbers of Tsai Chus or 
rich men, for in addition to the bankers, there are a number of 
merchants who have business in Mongolia, Manchuria and 
Asiatic Russia. 

Tai Ku, the chief business centre, is a very prosperous place, 
and at one time contained a fair number of millionaires. The 
streets are crowded, and the great stores are packed full of goods, 
while many of the doorways and arches are beautifully orna- 
mented. In the suburbs there are many imposing buildings, 
and perhaps there is no place in inland China where so much 
wealth is contained in so small an area. It is true that the 
troubles in Manchuria have caused great losses to these mer- 
chants, but still sufficient trade remains to make the place of 
great importance. 

To the South and West of Tai Ku are the cities of Chi Hsien, 
Ping Yao and Gieh Hsiu, which also have many bankers and 
merchants, but they are not so large and important as Tai Ku. 

The wealth of this district has, however, brought few blessings 
with it, and seems to have corrupted and demoralised many of 
the people. The Lao Tsais, or old rich men, have an unenviable 
record for meanness and conservatism, and they are, almost 
without exception, confirmed opium smokers. They live close 
confined lives, and are destitute of patriotism and its kindred 
virtues. What money is not used for business purposes is 
melted into large lumps (to prevent theft) and buried in the 
ground. The management of their shops is left in the hands of 
their agents, and they refuse to let their sons leave their homes. 



A Glimpse at Western China 53 

In order to prevent the young men from going away and spend- 
ing money, they are encouraged to smoke opium, and in many 
of the houses everyone, without respect to age or sex, is a victim 
to the habit. Such a policy defeats its own ends, and most of 
the fortunes made are dissipated in the second or third genera- 
tion. 

Going to the South of the province the chief object of interest 
is a salt lake which is about thirty miles long and one mile wide. 
Enormous quantities of salt are taken out of it every year, and 
as it is a Government monopoly the post of salt commissioner is 
a very lucrative one. To the South-east, on the borders of 
Honan, is Tse Chou Fu, a fine and prosperous city, and the 
centre of a valuable anthracite coal field. North of it is Lu 
An Fu, a large but dilapidated city where there are some 
famous iron works. From the West of the Tai Yuan Fu plain 
to the Yellow River the country is exceedingly mountainous, 
and the few inhabitants who live there earn a very precarious 
livelihood. Yet in spite of this emigrants come from the 
densely populated provinces of Hupeh and Zechuan, and culti- 
vate the mountain slopes which the Shansi people in their 
extremity find too unprofitable to cultivate. To the North of 
Tai Yuan Fu there is a series of plains divided off by mountains, 
but after a few hundred miles or so the country is very poor 
and the people few in number. In the North-west is Gua Hua 
Cheng, a large and prosperous city, which does a great trade 
with Mongolia, and where there are some famous horse fairs. 

East of Tai Yuan Fu is Ping Ding, which is destined to 
become a great coal and iron district, especially now that the 
railway is passing close to it. A considerable export trade is 
already done in crude iron pots and agricultural implements, 
but there is not the slightest attempt to depart from the methods 
of manufacture which have been in existence for hundreds of 
years. 

In spite of the great mineral wealth, Shansi remains an 
agricultural country, and the chief products are wheat, sorghum 
and millet. After these come buckwheat, beans, hemp, Indian 



54 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

com, potatoes and oats. The oatmeal is excellent, but is not 
liked by tbe people, who much prefer macaroni made from flour 
or millet gruel flavoured with vegetables. Rice is only grown 
in a few irrigated districts, but most of the best land is given 
over to opium. This year, however, owing to the heavy taxes 
put on it very much less opium is being grown, and it is hoped 
to lessen the area under cultivation year by year. The grapes 
are excellent and very cheap, but the apples, pears, apricots and 
peaches are of very poor quality, and are very inferior to the 
English varieties. 

The chief means of transport is by mules and camels, but in 
the plains the heavy springless carts stumble along and raise 
clouds of dust on every side. Some of the mules are very fine, 
and they carry heavy loads over the most terrible mountain 
passes, but the horses, though very hardy, are of small size and 
uncertain temper. There are a few oxen which are used as 
beasts of burden, but the sheep are of fair quality and scrape 
together an existence from the grass on the mountain sides. 

Wolves roam over the mountains, and sometimes come down 
to the plains. They frequently attack people and are a cause of 
terror in many villages. There are a few leopards and one or 
two mythical tigers, but the animals are, on the whole, few in 
number, and hunted so much that they do not increase. 

The people are very different from the " slim," suave gentle- 
man from Shanghai, or the robust, loud-voiced natives of Chili 
and Shantung. They are rustic and old-fashioned, slow to 
move and suspicious of strangers. Their love of money is pro- 
verbial in a country where thrift is carried to a science, and 
many are the tales told about them trying to save a few cash. 

To understand their dialect would strain the patience of 
angels, and they often have great difficulty in understanding 
one another. A Pekinese ditty runs thus : 

" Tien bu pa, 

" Di bu pa, 

" Ging pa Lao Hsi Er 

** Showa Ging hwa." 



A Glimpse at Western China 55 

" I don't fear heaven, 

" I don't fear earth, 

" I only fear an old Westerner 

'* Speaking Pekinese." 

A Shansi man is fair game for a crowd of sharp-witted Chili 
people, but he is much more trustworthy than they are, and 
though he may be very slow in making promises, there is some 
probability that he will carry them out. It is this comparative 
reliability which has made him famous as a banker and mer- 
chant, and on this account he may be forgiven the absence of 
many outward recommendations.' Though apt to quarrel, he is 
seldom violent, and there is little serious crime. The women 
have very small feet even for China, and are utterly incapable 
and ignorant. Not one in a hundred can read or write, and 
their helplessness is one of the weaknesses of the country. 

The dress of the people consists in the winter of coarse cotton 
cloth wadded with cotton wool, while in summer the same kind 
of cloth is used without the wadding. The trousers are extremely 
baggy and are bound at the ankle by a piece of ribbon. The 
respectable, well-to-do people wear long gowns, but the poorer 
classes content themselves with short coats. Silk is not much 
used except by the officials, and the clothes of the majority of 
the people are very badly cut and behind the times. Some of 
the sleeves of the scholars from the country places are exceed- 
ingly long, and so broad that they form a convenient rec<iptacle 
for all manner of goods. 

I remember once talking with a man for over half an hour 
without noticing anything peculiar about him when, to my 
surprise, he brought out a large vase from one sleeve. While 
I was looking at it another vase came out of the opposite sleeve, 
and as may be expected I kept a sharp eye on my visitor in case 
he should take a fancy to any of my treasures. 

The towns with the exceptions already mentioned are dirty, 
dilapidated places, containing the Yamen or official residence, 
several temples, a few shops, and a number of half tumbled- 
down houses. The majority of the people live in villages, and 



56 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

these may be divided into three classes, namely, those of the 
plain, the mountains and the loess hills. The village of the 
plain is the scene in my mind which most adequately represents 
this part of China, and it may be described as follows. From 
a dusty road, you enter a long, narrow street, and the first sight 
which greets you is the village temple, with one or two men 
lounging in the doorway. Then come one or two tumble-down 
buildings and a small open space, where a woman is grinding 
corn. A donkey turns round the grindstone, and no matter 
when or where you go you seem to see the selfsame donkey 
turning round the selfsame grindstone. After this are a few 
small huts with two or three men squatting down and a few 
children playing beside them. When you return next year you 
seem to see the same men sitting on the same doorstep and the 
same children playing the same game. A woman hobbles along 
and shouts out something to another woman standing in the 
opposite doorway, and on the side is an open-air restaurant with 
one or two travellers sipping tea. A cart stands by the side of 
the road with a mule tethered to it, and by the side is a man 
with a bowl of millet in one hand and a pair of chopsticks in 
the other. One or two dilapidated inns, a small shop, several 
manure heaps, a surly mongrel dog, a fairly large house with 
an ornamented doorway, a few more huts and you come to the 
end of the village. 

This is China as we know it wjthout romance and without any 
of the mystery of the East. Everything is poor, dirty, dilapi- 
dated, and the few attempts at ornamentation are mere tinsel 
and dross. It must not be assumed, however, that the people 
are always as poor as they appear to be, for even those dirty 
huts may store a fair supply of corn, and the man we saw 
squatting in the doorway may own a hundred acres of land. 
The standard of living is so low that the well-to-do farmer lives 
very much the same as the labourer he employs, and it is very 
difficult to gauge the wealth of the country. 

The mountain village is generally hidden away at the side of 
some mountain or by a valley. The houses are built fairly high 



A Glimpse at Western China 57 

to protect them from the summer rains and the long street is 
absent. The people are hardier looking, but not so prosperous, 
and are much more uncertain as to their crops. If no rain 
comes they are short of water, and when it does come they have 
to fight against the floods. If it is winter time many of them 
will wear dirty-looking sheep skins, and they have that dull, 
stupid look, as though they were wearied by their everlasting 
fight against destiny. 

The loess village is unique and quite unlike the others. The 
land rises in tiers, and on each are a few scattered houses. 
Some of these are little more than caves dug into the earth cliff, 
and a few yards further on may be a deep precipice. The 
sombre greyish colour of the loess overshadows everything else, 
and the fiat lands rising one above the other seem to yearn for 
a drop of water. All that the people need is a good downpour 
at the right season, and then the crops are heavy and the garners 
full. Even the good years are not without their anxious 
moments, for the rain never comes until the very last moment, 
and gives its help in the most grudging manner. 

The climate of Shansi is very healthy, consisting of a long, 
cold winter, and a long, hot summer, with a few intervening 
days of spring and autumn. The skies are blue, and the atmos- 
phere wonderfully dry and clear. The sun's rays are very 
powerful owing to the small amount of moisture in the air, and 
the average rainfall is from 12 to 15 inches. 

Tai Yuan Fu, the capital of the Province, has walls of over 
ten miles in circumference, but has only about forty thousand 
inhabitants. It is the centre of officialdom, for the Governor of 
Shansi lives there, together with the members of his Council 
and hundreds of subordinates who occupy places in Boards and 
Bureaus, to say nothing of great numbers of expectant officials 
who are waiting for vacancies. Without they have infiuence or 
money they may have to wait many years before they get a post, 
and even then they may be dismissed for a very slight offence. 
In addition, they have to give frequent presents to their 
superiors and are very often in desperate circumstances. The 



58 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

career of an official is little more than a game of chance, and 
amidst the endless ceremony and routine of their lives come 
many exciting moments. 

The Yamens or official residences are large, imposing build- 
ings, with huge gateways and many courtyards, but they are 
strangely lacking in comfort, and the decorations, though 
rather imposing to look at, are in reality very cheap and gaudy. 

The life of the ordinary people is monotonous in the extreme, 
and relief is only afforded by theatres, marriages, deaths and 
feasts. The former is generally an open-air performance, and 
to our minds is exceedingly crude and uninteresting. Very 
little attempt is made in the line of scenery, and much of the 
time is occupied by a series of songs delivered in a high-pitched 
falsetto, accompanied by clashing cymbles and a squeaking in- 
strument something like a zither. Marriages and deaths are 
solemnised in a very extravagant scale, and families are 
frequently impoverished for years in consequence. It is at a 
feast, however, that the Chinaman is in his true element. 
Sitting at a round table full of various kinds of dishes, and 
dipping his chopsticks first into one and then into another is to 
him a near approach to paradise, and when he has eaten to the 
full then his happiness has reached its height. Quarrels and 
disputes of every kind are easily settled by a skilfully arranged 
feast, and were it not for this, life would be much harder to 
bear, and disputes would drag on to eternity. 

In matters educational the Shansi people are very much be- 
hind those of other parts of China. It is said that if a Shansi 
man has three sons the cleverest becomes the head-servant in a 
Yamen, the next goes in for business and the fool becomes the 
scholar. In the old Hsin Ysai or B.A. examinations the can- 
didates would in most places only number a few hundreds, 
while in Shantung and South China, under similar circum- 
stances, the aspirants would come up in their thousands. In 
some districts in Shansi there would often be a difficulty in 
getting a sufficient number of men to enter, and so the standard 
for passing would be very low. 



A Glimpse at Western China 59 

Of late, however, there has been a great improvement, and 
tliere are signs that the spirit of progress has reached even to 
tliis part of the world. In two or three months the railway will 
Kave reached Tai Yuan Fu, and already a steam roller is help- 
ing to make the roads better. Twenty-five students from the 
SLansi University have gone to England to study mining, and 
it is hoped when they return they will be able to help their 
country, and enable this ancient province to take her proper 
place in the new movement which has been properly called the 
awakening of China. 

PORTRAIT OF OUR LATE SECRETARY, 
Mr. ELI SOWERBUTTS, F.R.G.S. 

The members of the Society will be pleased to learn that, through the efforts 
of our member, Mr. Robert Stewart, an enlarged copy of an excellent portrait 
of the late Mr. Eli Sowerbutts, has been hung in the Members' Room of the 
Society, and also that a similar portrait is to be found in the picture gallery at 
Heaton Park. 

The Royal Greographical Society and the Royal Scottish Geographical 
Society, also have similar enlarged copies of the same portrait on their walls. 



^ 



60 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



THE LUT, THE GREAT DESERT OF PERSIA. 
By Herbert R. Sykes, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

[Addref«ed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on Tue&day, March 19th, 

1907.] 

There is something awe-inspiring in the thought of those vast 
tracts of the Earth's surface which we call deserts ; regions, for 
the most part rock and sand, blighted by the hand of Nature, 
and doomed to eternal solitude, where Death reigns everywhere, 
supreme lord of fc-arfulness and silence. The very word con- 
jures up, does it not, such sterile territories as the Desert of 
Gobi in Asia, the vast Sahara, occupying an area two-thirds that 
of Europe, the untraversed plains of Central Australia, and the 
Lut of Persia ; not to mention a host of others, equally terrible 
in the horror of their desolation, even if less in area. 

When we come to consider the question of deserts and the 
causes which govern their distribution over the Earth's surface, 
we find that their existence is due to certain principles, partly- 
geographical, but largely meteorological. 

In the first place they are chiefly confined to a belt of 
country lying between the 20th and 45th parallels of latitude on 
either side of the Equator, that is to say, between the belt of 
tropical rain and the region of cold; and it is evident from 
this distribution that deserts owe their existence to general 
meteorological conditions. 

In the second place, no area of the earth's surface is abso- 
lutely free from precipitation of the aqueous vapour held sus- 
pended in the atmosphere, but as any inequality in the Earth's 
surface causes the vapour-laden atmosphere to rise, thus becom- 
ing chilled, and so to precipitate itself in the form of rain, it 
follows that upland regions will usually be found to be favoured 
with much rain while lowland regions are comparatively dry. 
Hence, other things being equal, desert conditions are more 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 6i 

likely to be developed in plains than in districts marked by- 
inequalities of surface. But even hilly regions will be subjected 
to desert conditions if the winds that blow over that district be 
charged with but little aqueous vapour. This is an important 
modification of our first axiom to bear in mind, because there 
are mountain ranges in the Lut, as I shall presently show you, 
which might lead one to suppose that as the Lut is not altogether 
a plain so it is not altogether a desert. The conditions favour- 
able for the existence of deserts on a large scale occur when 
extensive mountain ranges separate a large tract of continent 
from the prevailing vapour-laden winds. From the foregoing 
remarks it becomes clear that given a low-lying tract of country 
in the heart of a continent surrounded by mountain ranges, at 
all events on these quarters from which the prevailing vapour- 
laden winds blow, the result will be that that district displays 
desert conditions. 

So much, then, for general principles, I will now ask you to 
turn your attention to a large belt of country which includes 
the Sahara, portions of Egypt, the Sinaitic peninsular, and most 
of Arabia and Persia with Baluchistan and we might add 
Afghanistan, and extends practically to the eastern limits of 
the Desert of Gobi. The whole of this area may be accepted as 
one huge territory given over almost entirely to desert con- 
ditions, and as such required, so it was thought half a century 
ago, a single theory to cover and explain its existence, and such 
a theory was then evoked. 

It was generally supposed that a vast current of air emanating 
from the north polar regions, and deviated by the rotation of 
the Earth on its axis traversed obliquely those portions of Asia 
and Africa just mentioned. I^ow, since the aridity of a 
country increases by reason of its distance from those seas, 
which may reasonably be expected to yield up their vapours, it 
was natural to suppose that this current left each country it 
passed over as dry as it found it. The proximity of the Atlantic 
could be of no service to the western Sahara, for the wind which 
reached it had already traversed the Steppes of Asia, the 



62 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

plateaux of Iran, Northern Arabia, and all the deserts situated 
west of the Nile, so that Peschel portrays the Sahara as actually 
dying of thirst within sight of the ocean ! 

A glance at the map will show you that the position of these 
regions exactly fits the application of the theory. We can see 
in our mind's eye the cold dry wind leaving its home in the 
north, driven southward, and then as it comes under the in- 
fluence of the Earth's rotation, gradually assuming a more 
westerly course, until as it reaches the latitudes of the Sahara 
its direction is about due west. We picture it losing what small 
amount of vapour it ever possessed in northern Asia, and then 
as it sweeps over the desiccated sands and rocks of Persia and 
Arabia accumulating a storage of heat until with a breath like 
the blast of a furnace, it rolls on, raising in the Sahara these 
fiery sand-storms that are death to the wayfarer. This is a 
charmingly simple theory but one which unfortunately is found 
on close scrutiny to be utterly without foundation. 

M. Woeikoff, a Russian scientist, in exploding this brilliant 
piece of imagination as regards the Sahara, has incidentally 
thrown some light on the great desert of Persia. In Summer, 
he says, the deserts of Asia are themselves the centres of systems 
of high temperature, and draw currents of air from the neigh- 
bouring regions. These currents are found to converge towards 
three principle centres of barometric depression; one lying to 
the North-west of India (Baluchistan); another including 
Eastern Turkestan ; the third being the Eara-Eum south of the 
Aral Caspian Steppe. At the same time the warm plains of 
Mesopotamia are drawing air from the Mediterranean to such 
an extent that the trees around Jerusalem are actually bent 
towards the north-east. 

In winter the conditions are almost exactly reversed; the 
cold air does it is true take a southerly direction, but it does 
not reach the Sahara. It answers the call of these regions 
where at this time of the year the barometric pressure is low, 
namely the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf. 

From what has already been said, we may, I think, deduce 
the following reasons to explain the aridity of the Lut : — 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 63 

(a) The airs which reach the Lut are for the most part cur- 
rents from the north, which arrive in the Lut in an already 
desiccated condition, having precipitated any moisture they 
once contained in traversing the plains of Turkestan and the 
mountain ranges of Ehorassan. 

(6) The moisture-laden winds from the south have in like 
manner long before reaching the Lut precipitated their moisture 
on the heights of that great divide which so effectually cuts off 
the Iran Plateau from the coast. For similar reasons the east 
and west winds reach the Lut in an equally vapourless con- 
dition. So dry, in fact, is the air of these regions, that M. 
Khanikoff has registered a freedom from moisture which will 
hardly find its equal in any part of the globe. 

(11*2% relative humidity which is *8% less than Humboldt 
measured in the Barabinskaya Steppe.) 

If these are the conditions of to-day, may we not reasonably 
ask how long have they prevailed thus, have any changes been 
recorded within historical times, is the present tendency towards 
an increase or decrease of desert conditions, and what causes 
govern that tendency? 

I think there is no doubt at all that large tracts of central 
Persia which now appear as salt marshes, or lie under sheets of 
salty efflorescence, were within recent times (geologically speak- 
ing) covered by sheets of water, at first fresh, then as evapora- 
tion began to exceed precipitation and their area to diminish, 
becoming salt, until to-day their former existence is only shown 
by salty deposits (called Dasht-i-Kavir on the map) through 
which there probably courses a stream of brine salt to the point 
of saturation. 

Khanikoff, speaking of that portion of the Lut which lies 
east of Kerman, relates a local legend to the effect that this 
desert was once under a salt lake which vanished the instant the 
Prophet Mohammed was born into the world. I was told a 
similar story at a village on the edge of a salt marsh when 
travelling between Tezd and Meshed; but in this instance it 
was Our Lord who appeared on the spot and caused the ultimate 



64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

disappearance of the lake. Such legends might be multiplied 
indefinitely. 

The same traveller describing the bed of the Ehusp river, 
which flows from the eastern limits of the desert towards 
Herman, makes the following observations : — 

The river of Ehousse contains but little water, and what little 
there is is completely absorbed for the irrigation of the sur- 
rounding fields ; its dry bed, however, crosses the whole length 
of the desert. In the memory of man it has never been filled 
with water in the Lut. Even in the years when most rain has 
fallen its waters have never passed beyond that part of the 
country which is inhabited. Yet this fissure is of too great a 
depth in the soil of the desert for us to suppose that it has been 
caused by a simple meteorological occurrence as a torrent of 
rain. It evidently owes its origin to a long and constant action 
of flowing water; we are therefore led to believe that the level 
of the rainfall has from no very distant date fallen considerably. 

Prince Eropotkin, in a paper read by him some few years 
ago before the research department of the R. 6. S. has dealt 
minutely with the fact that central and northern Europe and 
Asia are now, and have been since the beginning of historic 
record, in a state of rapid desiccation; and so clearly does he 
state his case that perhaps I may be forgiven if in the following 
remarks I draw largely from his pen. 

This desiccation, he says, is a geological fact which is 
entirely dependent on the character of the geological epoch 
which preceded it, and must be considered in connexion with it. 
The geological period in which we live may be termed the Post- 
Glacial period, and it is to the Glacial period itself that we 
must look for an explanation. 

During that period nearly the whole of Eurasia to the north 
of the 50th parallel and a very large portion of the highlands 
south of this line were buried under ice. Then came a period 
when this accumulation of unevaporated and frozen precipita- 
tion gradually began to dissolve; the ice sheets which covered 
Eurasia began to shrivel and thaw. Immense volumes of water 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 65 

must have been annually discharged southwards from this mass 
of thawing ice, and large tracts of country must have been 
inundated each summer with muddy rivers, and finally the area 
once covered with ice was converted into large lakes. Old 
drainage systems having been choked by. glacial deposits, 
immense territories had no drainage, and new channels had to 
be dug out in order to find an outflow for the waters towards the 
ocean. This period then, responsible for submerging a large 
area of Eurasia under innumerable lakes (such as now form so 
conspicuous a characteristic of the map of Finland) was equally 
responsible for the inundations of the Lut, for the ice on the 
surrounding mountains must have melted, and the resultant 
liquid would accumulate in the natural depressions, which, then 
as now, received drainage from all sides. Thereafter began 
over the whole surface of Europe aind Asia a desiccation which 
is going on now and has been continued unintermittently since 
the end of the glacial period. It is not with a temporary fact 
that we have to deal. It is a geological epoch of desiccation 
that we are now living in, and the necessary outcome of the pre- 
ceding period of glaciation. It is interesting in this connexion 
to remember that the only great glacial epoch besides the 
pleistocene of which we have any record is that which took 
place in Permo-Carboniferous times, and in the trias which 
followed, desert conditions prevailed extensively. 

So far as my discussion has gone I have only invoked the 
aid of Natural Agencies to account for the desiccation of the 
Lut. We must now enquire to what extent in past and present 
times man has shown himself in any way responsible for the 
enlargement of the desert. To begin with you must know that 
no part of Eastern Persia is capable of producing crops except 
by the aid of irrigation. In no portion of the provinces of 
Yezd, Kerman, and Ehorassan so far as I am aware does the 
rainfall exceed 10 inches, and this is the minimum annual 
amount capable of producing crops naturally. In fact Eastern 
Persia might be described as a desert tempered by occasional 
oases, and the Lut as desert pure and simple. The oases are 



66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

only kept alive by springs tapped in the kills, the water being 
laboriously conveyed, often for many xniles, in underground 
channels, termed Eanats. Unless these Eanats are constantly 
attended to they soon become choked with sand. There is little 
doubt that the system of wholesale devastation on which the 
conquests of Tamerlane and Chengis Ehan were conducted, 
when whole populations were mercilessly put to the sword, have 
tended to enlarge the limits of the Lut very considerably. For 
once the kanats were choked, and this would occur in a few 
months, the oasis or village would necessarily become as barren 
a spot as any part of the desert ; Afghan, Baluch, and Turkoman 
raids carried on till quite recently, must also have had the same 
effect. The flagrant corruption of the Persian Government of 
to-day, the greed of the powerful classes, and the prevalence of 
brigandage have all tended in the same direction, namely to the 
suppression of individual exertion, so that much territory even 
outside the limits of the desert proper, which was thriving and 
teeming with a wealthy population when Marco Polo passed 
through in 1270 is to-day a barren plain sparsely sprinkled with 
the tents of a few nomad families. 

Such, then, is the past history of the Lut. What it is to-day 
I shall show you presently by means of photographs. There 
seems to be no hope for it in the future. The desiccation which 
began thousands of years ago is still at work, and must continue 
through the present geological epoch. 



Journey Across the Lut. 

It was on the 10th of October, 1903, that I left Yezd for a 
journey of over 400 miles across the Lut to Meshed. I was 
accompanied on that occasion by two ladies who are, probably, 
the first two European ladies to have crossed the Lut by this 
route. Miss Tanner was paying her third visit to Persia, having 
during the previous sixteen years of almost constant travel, 
visited nearly all the quarters of the globe. Miss Ethel Sykes, 
my cousin, was following in the footsteps of her sister, the 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 67 

authoress of "Through Persia on a Side Saddle." I had already 
accompanied these ladies from Bundar- Abbas to Eerman, 300 
miles, and thence to Tezd, another 200 ; but the next 460 miles 
was to prove the most arduous of any of our journeys. 

We travelled with a " Pishkhana," that is to say, we sent 
on spare tents and our spare camp equipment over night, so that, 
on our arrival at the end of our days march, our camp might 
be readily pitched for us, and we saved the weariness of those 
tiresome hours most travellers experience which must elapse 
while tardy mules are unloaded, tents pitched, fireslit, and meals 
prepared. 

I took a few extra precautions as to provisions. We carried 
the usual tinned food-stufiPs — ^butter, jam, milk, etc. — and dried 
vegetables besides potatoes, rice, tea, coffee and sugar, none of 
which we well knew would be procurable once we left Yezd. 
In addition one mule carried four large earthenware jars en- 
cased in two boxes which contained our drinking water, and a 
camel carried about 100 water melons, of less repute among 
Persians than the melon proper, but more thirst-quenching and 
not so sweet and so on the whole preferable. These just lasted 
as long as the hot weather continued. 

Our transport consisted of twenty mules and twenty camels, 
some horses and one or two asses. The actual start was not an 
auspicious one. On the evening of the 9th, the Governor of 
Tezd, the Jelal-ud-D61a, being himself on the point of making 
a journey sent round and commandeered all the mules in Tezd, 
mine among the number; and it was only after some hours that 
they could persuade his servants that the mules were engaged 
by the " Sahib." Thus the cook was unable to proceed with the 
Pishkhana. A newly engaged servant, too, was apprehended 
on a charge of theft and we were obliged to start without him. 
I managed, however, to get him released by promising to ex- 
amine his saddle-bags and send him back if the missing articles 
were found therein. The saddle-bags were unlocked under my 
own eye and I was glad to find nothing but a servant's ordinary 
travelling kit. 



68 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

It was soon after sunrise that, accompanied by the tinkling 
of many mule bells and the shouts of the drives, we wound our 
way through the narrow tortuous streets towards the northern 
gate of Yezd and after a short half-mile of gardens found our- 
selves in the desert of sand which surrounds the city to an 
alarmingly increasing extent. After a dozen miles, on ap- 
proaching the slopes of a range of hills, the road became stony 
and presently, as the hills closed in upon us, we turned a bend 
in the road ; round a comer of rock we got our last view of Yezd 
lying below us in the valley. As we moved forward again I 
could not help thinking we had left civilisation behind us and 
were now on the threshold of one of the earth's most weary 
wastes. So to our first halting place, Anjirak, with its dirty 
caravanserai and walled garden, and a tower of refuge with the 
door high up in the wall. The water here was salty and prac- 
tically undrinkable so we had recourse to our invaluable water 
vessels. (I may mention here that during the first 375 miles 
from Yezd, we only found good drinking water at six places.) 
That afternoon was made unpleasant by a high wind that raised 
clouds of dust. 

Khariineh was reached the next day after a six hours ride. 
It lies at an altitude of 5,500 feet or about 1,300 feet above Yezd 
and is one of the most remarkable villages in Persia. Built 
entirely with its four walls which form a square of about 120 
yards each way it accommodates a crowded population of about 
300 souls. The houses are so compact that there is no room for 
streets which have degenerated into mere arched passages about 
8 feet wide and ten or twelve feet high. The village square or 
Meidan is only about twenty-five feet each way and contains a 
husseinieh or rostrum from which is annually recited the Per- 
sian Passion Play recalling the tragic deaths of Hussein and 
Hassan. One of the inhabitants piloted me through the village. 
The only entrance is by means of an iron studded gate in the 
eastern wall supported by turrets reminding me forcibly of the 
entrance to so many of the Welsh castles built in Plantagenet 
days: only Khariineh is far more ancient than they: tradi- 



The Lut> the Great Desert of Persia 69 

tion makes it 500 years older than Tezd or about coeval with 
the Christian Era. Without the walls is a spacious caravan- 
serai. Xear the village I was shewn mounds said to be the 
remains of a still earlier Kharuneh. They might or might not 
repay careful excavation. 

Our next day's march was a short one of four miles only to 
Doqali; we halted here in order to get the advantage of a 
sweet spring. A party of pilgrims, mostly women on their way 
from the holy shrine at Meshed, halted for an hour or two while 
we were there, and spent a good portion of their leisure over 
their devotions. The next 20 miles to the caravanserai of Rizab 
proved a somewhat eventful march, for my advance camp sus- 
tained a midnight attack from a band of robbers who haunt the 
district. Being beaten off in their first attempt they took refuge 
in the very caravanserai which we were to make our head- 
quarters where our men were again attacked on their approach. 
Fortunately I had been warned of the dangers of this road 
before leaving Tezd, and the Jelal had kindly provided me with 
an escort of cavalry, four in number. But for their timely 
presence I should indeed have fared badly as none of my servants 
or camel drivers carried arms. As it was I lost two camels, 
and one horse killed, and another Lorse they made off with, 
while one of my servants — the cook, unfortunately, with all 
the keys of the various stores — was stripped of everything he 
had, including most of his clothes. Fortunately none of my 
followers received any personal injury. 

On the following day we reached an oasis, Sakiind, where was 
a pleasant village and sweet water. Here I fell a victim to fever 
which, kept me 48 hours in bed during which time the ladies 
were most assiduous in their ministrations ; and I owe it to them 
that I recovered so soon. On the 17th we reached a caravanserai 
and salt pool called Illahabad, and the day following, after a 
long and weary stage of 24 miles, Pusht-i-Bddam. We were 
now in the heart of the Lut and on the outskirts of one of its 
least attractive portions. The country we had traversed had 
presented a more or less mountainous appearance, but from an 



70 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

eminence near this village I could discry a limitless plain ex- 
tending in a northerly direction, beyond which no trace of 
mountains was visible. I mention this as being a somewhat 
remarkable feature as the horizon of a Persian landscape is 
invariably bounded by mountain ranges. 

We made a short march to Shorab on the following day with 
the object of shortening as far as possible the next march. Even 
then it was a sore tax on us all consisting as it did of full 
30 miles. The first ten lay across a barren plain of gravel and 
sand at the termination of which we found ourselves at an 
elevation of only 2,600 feet. The heat was trying, and when 
the hour of our midday halt drew nigh there was no shelter from 
the rays of the burning sun and we ate our simple fare seated 
on a slab of rock which might just as well have been the top 
of a stove. A few miles further on we were met by a belt of 
sand which had to be crossed. The track was almost invisible 
as it wound in and out among the sand dunes and the poor trans- 
port animals floundered along painfully throughout the five miles 
of this weary tract ; but at last it ended and we reached ** terra 
firma " again and, after crossing a small pass, descended to a 
spot called Sar-i-Cheshma-i-Shuteran. A forlorn spot, too, 
after a weary day's march, but somewhat picturesque notwith- 
standing. A pool of very dirty water fouled by the feet of 
caravan animals standing at the foot of a sheer limestone cHff. 
Near by were the walls of a disused and dismantled caravanserai 
rapidly falling into ruin. 

The following day Bobat-i-Khan was reached at an altitude 
of 3350 feet after a pleasant 10 mile ride, and here by going 1 J 
miles into the hills a very meagre trickle of water was to be 
found which enabled us to fill up our water jars. 

The next village lay more than 50 miles ahead of us but 
two intervening caravanserais (with the usual salt springs) 
enabled us to divide the distance into three marches, and at 
Chahar-deh-i-Tabbas we halted for two nights to rest our animals 
and to enjoy the luxury of a rest beneath a grove of palms. We 
were now a mere matter of 2400 feet above sea- level and the 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 71 

weather was pleasantly warm it being now the last week in 
October. We had now traversed about 200 miles of the Lut 
and had very nearly 200 miles more before we should reach 
Turbat-i-Haideri at its northern limit. 

About 56 miles beyond Chahar-deh-i-Tabbas lies Neigenu : 
it is interesting as lying on the edge of one of those depressions 
which are now salt swamps but were once inland seas. The 
village which stands on a cliff a hundred feet or so above the 
level of the plain is evidently a place of great antiquity for 
there was a ruined fort, the successor of a still older building of 
which the original form could only be vaguely surmised. It was 
here that I heard the legend of our Lord's appearing and the 
subsequent drying up of the lake. The word " Nei " is Persian 
for a reed and doubtless the village owes its name to the presence 
of reeds in bygone days which may have flourished as profusely 
as they now do in the " Neizar " by the shores of the Seistan 
lagoon. 

The next day we struck out across the salt plain. A very 
few miles brought us to a bridge spanning a clear stream of 
pure brine all that now remains of the former lake ; further on 
we entered the salt itself. It covers the ground for miles and 
strongly resembles snow or hoar frost. If you tread on it it 
cracks and crunches under your foot like ice, and underneath 
it lie a few inches of light powdery dust; In wet weather it 
becomes almost impassable. On this particular day the camels 
of the Pishkhana lost their way and arrived in camp after us, 
which inconvenienced us, and gave them a twelve instead of a five 
hours march. 

We were now about 2800 feet above sea level, an altitude 
which we maintained for several days with but slight variations 
till Faizabad was reached nearly 100 miles further on, at which 
point we again saw cultivation on a considerable scale. 

The whole of the intervening ground has once been the 
bottom of the inland lake I have mentioned, and at Faizabad the 
cultivation is carried on by means of wells, water being found 
abundantly a few feet below the surface. On our way thilher 



72 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

we passed the village of Yunsi, said to be the same word as 
Jonah, a legend declaring that at this spot Jonah was cast up hj 
the whale. 

Our twenty-fifth march brought us to Turbat-i-Haideri, and 
we camped under the walls of the Mausoleum erected to the 
memory of the famous saint who has given his name to the 
town. We had now travelled 396 miles from Tezd and had 
finally left the desert behind us. I do not think any of us were 
sorry to do so. Those who rave about the beauty of the desert 
as described so ably in " The Garden of Allah " should try the 
real thing ! The eternal solitude of those inhospitable regions, 
the arid plains, or dry barren uplands become very irksome after 
a month. Another 80 miles and we beheld the golden dome 
and minarets of the famous shrine at Meshed : and in the British 
Consulate a warm welcome awaited us. After 35 days on the 
march the luxury of a house and all the comforts it provides 
must be experienced to be adequately realised. 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 



73 



SYl^OPSIS OF JOURNEY FROM YEZD TO MESHED. 



1. 

2. 


Anjirak 

Kliaruneb 


Feet 
. ... 5130 . 
. ... 5650 . 


MUes 
. 174 . 
. 18 .. 


:a 


3. 
4. 


Dogali 

Rizab 


. ... 5050 . 
. ... 4150 . 


. 4 .. 
. 19i. 


. 394 
. 59 


6. 
6. 


SaktSnd 

Illahabad 


. ... 4410 . 
. ... 3750 . 


. 12 . 
. 14 . 


. 71 

. 85 


7. 

8. 


Pusht-i-Bdddra .. 
Sborab 


. ... 4150 . 
. ... 3600 . 


.. 24 . 
.. 4i . 


. 109 
. 1134 


9. 


Sar-i-cbesbma-i- 
Sbuteran 


... 3200 . 


. 28 . 


. 1414 


10, 


Robat-i-Kban 


. ... 3350 . 


.. 10 . 


. 1514 


11. 
12. 


Kalniarz 

Sburab 


. ... 4426 . 
. ... 3350 . 


. 15 .. 
. 22 . 


. 1664 

. 188 r 


13. 


Cbabar-deb-i-Tabl 


>as... 24U0 . 


. 16 .. 


. 2044 


14. 


Dam-i-dabna 


. ... 3350 . 


. 16i . 


. 221 


15. 


Deb Mobammed 


... 3770 . 


.. Hi . 


. 2324 


16. 


Espak 


. ... 3300 . 


.. 15i . 


. 248 


17. 


Neigenu 


. ... 2770 . 


. 20 . 


. 268 


18. 
19. 


Hoaz-i-Haii Abb 
Kasimabaa 


as ... 2680 . 
. ... 3030 . 


. lOi. 
. 22 . 


. 2784 
. 300 j 


20, 


Fakrabad 


... 2580 . 


.. 18 . 


. 3184 


21. 


-Marandiz 


. ... 2600 . 


. 164 . 


. 335 


2?. 


Miandeb 


. ... 2680 . 


. 17 .. 


. 352 


23. 


Faizabad 


. ... 2900 . 


. 12 . 


. 364 



24. Robat-i-Bibi 

26. Turbat-i-Haideri. . . 



3500 



13 
19 



377 
396 



CaravanHerai and garden. 

Walled-in village and culti- 
vation. 

Spring of sweet water. 

Ruined caravanserai, very 
bad water. 

Walled village, sweet water. 

Caravanserai, very salt 
water. 

Fortified village, fair water, 

Hamlet, palms, very salt 
wat^r. 

Pool of dirty water at foot 
of cliff; remains of a 
caravanserai. 

Fortified village, caravan- 
serai in building, good 
water at I4 miles. 

Fair caravanserai, sal t water. 

New caravanserai, salt 
water. 

Village, palms, gootl cara- 
vanserai, sweet water. 

Poor caravanserai, no pro- 
visions, bad water. 

Village, caravanserai, abun- 
dance of sweet water. 

Village, gardens, caravan- 
serai, sweet water. 

Large village, gardens, 
carvanserai, sweet water. 

Water tank of bad water. 

Caravanserai, a bamlet, 
water sligbtly salt. 

Good caravanserai, village 
of 200 bouses, plentiral 
supply of tepid water, 
sligntly salt. 

Village of 150 bouses, 
brackisb water. 

Poor village, filtby caravan- 
serai, salt water. 

Town, good caravanserai, 
gardens, plentiful pro- 
visions. 

Fair caravanserai, walled 
village, gardens, cultiva- 
tion, mulberry trees, 

A large and importajit 
town, witb good bazaars. 
Britisb Vice-consul since 
1905. 



From Turbat to Mesbed about 80 miles. 
Total : Yezd to Mesbed 476 miles. 



74 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Mr. Bernard Hobson, M.Sc., in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. 
Sykee for his interesting Lecture, said: — 

In discussing the very interesting paper which Mr. Sykes has 
just read to us, the first point to which I desire to refer, is that of 
the meteorological conditions, which favour the formation of deserts. 
It will be found, generally speaking, that deserts (in the restricted 
sense of hot arid regions) occur chiefly in the region or zone of the 
trade winds. These winds, blowing from the north-east in the 
Northern and from the south-east in the Southern Hemisphere, are 
travelling from cooler to warmer regions. In this case, and in the 
case of such other winds, to which the same remark applies, there is 
no tendency for the wind to be cooled, and hence there is no 
tendency for any aqueous vapour it may bear to be condensed. So 
far from depositing any moisture, such winds, unless they encounter 
lofty mountains, tend to deprive the land of any moisture by 
evaporation. 

Mr. Sykes has referred to the Sahara. 

In July 1 a great barometric depression lies with its centre 
(isobar of 29'4 inches) over the Lut, and extends north-eastward 
into Siberia, and westward over the Sahara (isobars of 29*8 and 
29*9 inches), and air flows into the Sahara both from the north and 
from the south-west. In January the barometric depression is 
chiefly to south of the Sahara, and a pressure of about 29*95 prevails 
in the centre of that desert with higher pressure to north of it; the 
inflow of air is then chiefly from the north and north-east. The 
elevation of the Sahara is, in general, not great, mostly between 
600 and 1,500 ft., though a broad strip of country between 1,500 
and 3,000 ft. crosses it obliquely from south-east to north-west, and 
rises to 8,870 ft. in the Tibesti Mountains. The greater part of the 
Sahara lies between the isotherms of 60° and 70 °F. in January, and 
between 80° and 90° 2 in July, hence there is little elevation to 
cause condensation of aqueous vapour, and the intense heat is 
opposed to condensation. The rainfall is under 10 inches (at Osiiro 
3*4 cent imet res = 1*33 inch). 

As to the Lut, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, in his book " The Nearer East," 
p. 109, remarks : " Kerman enjoys only about forty days of anything 
else than a tropic summer, and over the neighbouring Dasht-i~Lut 
passes the isothermic line of the world's highest August temperature " 
[90°F. according to Bartliolomew's " Physical Atlas "]. I have 
already pointed out that in July (and August) the Dasht-i-Lut is the 
centre of a barometric depression, hence air must flow in, but it flows 
from cooler to a hotter region, and will deposit little moisture 

1. According to Bartholomew's "Physical Atlas," Vol. iii., Meteorology 
(1899), Plate 12. 

2. It must be remembered that both isobars and isotherms are reduced to 
sea-level. 



The Lut, the Great Desert of Persia 75 

In J&nuarj the isotherm of 60°F. crosses the Lut, and the isotherms 
to the south are higher ; the barometric depression is in the Indian 
Ocean, and the wind in the Lut is a north wind, blowing of course 
towards the area of low pressure and from the land towards the sea. 
Nevertheless, according to Mr. Hogarth and Prof. Dr. A. Supan, 
more rain falls in Persia in winter than in summer; the rainfall 
at Kerman, according to Hogarth, is less than at Cairo. Hogarth 
says : " Fortunately, what precipitation of moisture there is on the 
Iranian Plateau takes place almost wholly in winter, and thus the 
fall on its numerous heights is stored as snow against the summer." 
This winter precipitation must, I suppose, be due to the fact that 
the temperature of the land is not then so excessive and so much 
above the dew point. 

The elevation of the Dasht-i-Lut to the east of Kerman is between 
1,000 and 2,000 ft. On the west it is separated by half a dozen 
chains of mountains over 6,000 ft. in height from the Persian Gulf. 
On the south, mountains 4,000 to 6,000 ft. high separate it from 
the Jaz Morian Hamun (lake), which is itself separated from the 
Gulf of Oman by equally high mountains. On the easb towards 
Seistan the mountains rise to over 6,000 ft. Only on the north of 
the Lut does the elevation appear to be less.^ 

I am disposed to agree with Mr. Sykes that the lower and more 
level portions of the Lut represent a lake basin or basins which have 
been filled up with alluvium. 

The late Mr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S. (who died June 23rd, 1905), 
published, in 1873, in the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological 
Society, a paper " On the Nature and Probable Origin of the 
Superficial Deposits in the Valleys and Deserts of Central Persia," 
in which, after describing the slopes of gravel, sometimes ten miles 
broad, which cover the bases of the mountains, he says (p. 498): 
" We have yet to explain the origin of the vast deposits which fill 
the plains themselves; and the only probable explanation appears 
to be that these extensive basins were formerly lakes, most of them 
probably brackish or salt, like the Caspian and the Aral Seas, 
lakes of Van, Urumiah, Niriz, etc., the fine soil of the plains 
consisting of silt deposited in such lakes. . . . But for inland seas 
and lakes to have occupied the interior of Persia, and for large 
deposits to have formed in them, it is evident that the climate must 
have been much damper than at present." 

I must refer you to Mr. Blan ford's paper for further observations, 
but, on the principle of Sir Charles Lyell, of referring to causes now 
in action, I should like to draw attention to the account by Col. Sir 
Henry McMahon of " Recent Survey and Exploration in Seistan " in 
the " Geographical Journal " for September and October, 1906. 

1. See Bathy-orographical map of Iran [Persia] opposite page 48 of Mr. 
D. G. Hogarth*s "The Nearer East," London, 1902. 



76 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Seistan lies immediately to the east of the Lut, and is a large 
basin, some 7,000 square miles in area and without any outlet to the 
sea, which receives all the drainage of a vast tract of country over 
125,000 square miles in area^ girt on all sides by high mountain 
ranges. The principal river of Seistan is the Helmand. It drains a 
large portion of Afghanistan. It is some 600 miles in length, and 
its volume on reaching Seistan varies from a normal minimum of 
some 2,000 feet per second at low river, to 50,000 and 70,000 cubic 
feet per second in ordinary flood seasons, and to as much as 600,000 
and 700,000 cubic feet per second in years of abnormal flood, such 
as occurred in 1885. This great river ends in a lake, the Hdmun of 
Seistan, 100 miles long and about 15 miles wide, but nowhere very 
deep, only about 15 feet in the deeper depressions, and not more 
than 4 to 8 feet over the remaining area at flood time. Its extent 
rapidly shrinks after the flood season is over, and by winter large 
tracts of it have dried up. Mr. Ward's observations and calculations 
show that no less than 10 feet of water is consumed by evaporation 
in the course of the year. In other words, a lake 10 feet deep is 
removed by evaporation alone in a year. Nevertheless the Seistan 
lake is only known to have completely dried up once. 

All Seistan, both the high gravel covered plains, and lower lands 
is composed of alluvial soil, chiefly the ancient and modern deltas 
of the Helmand. On occasions the anK>unt of silt in the Helmand 
is as much as one part of silt to 127 parts of water, a figure which 
very few rivers in the world can surpass. The older alluvial deposits 
rise far above those of the present day. Col. McMahon says the 
former level of the Seistan alluvial area must have been at least 
400 feet above the present level. He suggests that the solid rock 
basin has subsided. This appears to me highly improbable ; a far 
simpler explanation is to suppose that the lake at one time rose 
400 feet above its present level just as the vanished Lake Bonneville^ 
in Utah was once over 1,000 ft. deep, whilst its remnant Great Salt 
Lake is only 40 ft. deep. If the river Helmand were in the future 
to greatly diminish in volume its deserted bed might resemble that 
of the Khusp river in the Lut, to which Mr. Sykes referred At 
present the river-bed of the Helmand " presents all the normal 
features of an ordinary trough of erosion. The alluvial cliffs, 200 
to 250 ft. high, which form the walls of this cutting on either side 
.... recede northwards and southwards, at the point where the 
Helmand enters the Seistan delta.'* 

It appears to me that we have in Seistan an existing and striking 
example of the way in which the Lut was probably formed. 

I have much pleasure in proposing a cordial vote of thanks to 
Mr. Sykes for his lecture. 

1. G. K. Gilbert, "Lake Bdimeville," United SUtes G«ological Survey 
Monographs, No. 1 (1890). 



Annual Meeting 77 



Hnnual flDeeting of tbc Society, 1907. 

The Twenty-second Annual Meeting of the Society was held in the Lord 
Mayor's Parlour, Town Hall, on Friday, April 26th, 1907, at 8 p.m. 

The Bight Hon. the Lord Mayor (Councillor John Harrop) presided, until 
he had to leave to attend another Meeting, when the Vice-Chancellor of 
Victoria University took his place. 

Among those present were Miss Wilde, Messrs. Joel Wainwright, J. P., 
J. Stephenson Reid, J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., J. McFarlane, M.A., 
H. Preston, Richardson Campbell, F. Mehl, Councillor J. Snaddon, 
C. A. Clarke, T. W. Sowerbutts, A. Balmforth, J. W. 0*Leary, A. Goodwin, 
H. Sowerbutts, and others. 

The Minutes of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting, held June 12th, 1906, 
were taken as read, having already appeared in the "Journal" (Vol. XXII., 
p. 75). 

The following telegram was received from the Rev. S. A. Steinthal, 
F.R.G.S., Chairman of the Council : — "Steinthal regrets being unexpectedly 
prevented from attending the Annual Meeting, and apologises for absence.*' 

After proofs of the following Report and Balance Sheet had been handed 
to each Member present, the Lord Mayor took them as read, with the 
approval of the Meeting. 

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL OF THE MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL 
r SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31st, 1906. 

The Council are pleased to be able to report that the work of the Society 
has been carried on during the year with considerable success. 

They regret, however, to have to call the attention of the members to the 
fact that the Society is much handicapped in its work by lack of funds. It 
will be seen, on reference to the balance sheet, that there has been a loss 
in the year of about £129, which has, unfortunately, added to the adverse 
balance of a year ago. 

If the operations of the Society are to be continued at the high state of 
excellence hitherto reached, and if an even higher standard is to be attained, 
it is imperative that a large increase of members be obtained to overtake the 
continued leakage by death and other causes, to enlarge the roll of those on 
the books, and to augment the annual income. 

The ordinary meetings have been held weekly during the Winter Session, 
and the variety of places upon which addresses have been delivered gives some 
indication of the great fund of information placed at the disposal of the 
members. 

The Council are much pleased with the large attendance at the meetings, 
which gives evidence of the satisfaction of the members with the present 
improved accommodation possessed by the Society. The well-attended 



78 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

gatherings have been encouraging to the lecturers, and have stimulated them 
to do justice to the subjects with which they have dealt. 

The addresses given have been of a varied and interesting character, as 
will be seen from the following list : — 

"A Ramble through an Undiscovered Country and the English Holland." 
Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

** Fairford Church, the Lantern of England." Mr. C. H. Bellamy, F.B.a.S. 

"Scottish Scenery, Song, and Story." Mr. James Stephenson Reid. 

*'From Snowfields to Vineyards." Rev. F. A. Rees (Rhysfa). 

"Episodes in a Business Visit to Denmark." Mr. Matthew Ingram. 

"The Rhine and its Legends." Dr. A. C. Magian, F.R.G.S. 

"The Pyrenees and Pyrenean People." Mr. J. J. Phelps. 

"Roman Remains : Their Witness to History." Rev. S. Hailstone, M.A. 

"The Punjaub and its People." Captain J. Stephenson. 

"Chinese Experiences." Mr. Robert W. Swallow, B.Sc. 

"In and Around Hong Kong." Dr. Robert Gibson. 

"A Visit to Japan." Dr. A. C. Magian, F.R.G.S. 

"The Southern Alps of Japan." Rev. Walter Weston, M.A., F.R.G.8. 

"Baalbek." Rev. P. M. Higginson, M.A. 

"South Africa, with the British Association." CapUin E. W. Wakefield, 
D.L., J.P. 

"Jamaica, the Crown of our West Indian Possessions." Mr. £. W. 
Mellor, J.P., F.R.G.S. 

"Cuba." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

"To the Southern Pacific Across the Andes." Captain W. J. P. Benson, 
F.R.G.S. 

"Some South Sea Islands— Reminiscences." Dr. T. Frank Southam. 
(Repeated by special request.) 

"Life in Queensland." Mrs. Louise Hirsch. 

"Fifty Wonders of Nature and Art." Mr. Jas. Stephenson Reid. 

"The Growth, Importation, Manufacture, etc., of Cotton, the Staple 
Trade of Lancashire." Mr. J. B. Brown. 

" Conference of Delegates of the British Association held in London, 1905." 
Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

"Orography and History." Mr. Ernest W. Dann, B.A., F.R.G.S. 

Three excursions were arranged during the summer, and were most 
successful. The thanks of the Society are specially due to Messrs. Joel 
Wain Wright, J. P., David A. Little, and Robert Hamnett for their leadership, 
and to the two gentlemen first named for their generous hospitality. 

The "Journal" for the whole of 1906 and for the first half of 1906 has 
been issued during the year, in half-yearly parts as suggested in the last 
Report, and has thus been brought practically up to date. This work has of 
necessity entailed considerable extra expense, and in consequence the financial 
deficiency of a year ago has been increased, as previously mentioned. 

The Council have with regret to again call attention to a heavy loss of 
members by death. Among those whose decease is deplored may be 
mentioned : — 



Annual Meeting 79 

Miss Ellen M. Gierke (London). 

Mr. Samuel Armitage. 

Mr. Thomas Atkinson. 

Mr. Robert Barclay, J.P. 

Mr. B. I. Belisha. 

Mr. W. H. Cowbum. 

Mr. J. Cottingham. 

Captain W. Nelson Greenwood, F.B.Met.S. 

Mr. B. Maginnis. 

Mr. Adam Murray. 

Mr. W. H. Bowbotham. 

Mr. T. Woodhead. 
Messrs. S. Armitage and B. I. Belisha were original members of the Society. 

Many additions to the Library, Map Boom, and Museum have been made 
during the year, consisting mainly of exchanges for the ''Journal" of the 
Society. 

The Victorians have again given active service, chiefly by lecturing, for 
the affiliated societies. Their annual report is presented herewith. 

The Council gratefully acknowledge the services of Mr. J. D. Wilde, M.A., 
of Highbury House School, St. Leonards-on-Sea, in kindly drawing up the 
three sets of questions for the children, which have been issued with the 
Notices to Members, and also for examining the replies which have been 
received. 

Mr. Wilde's report will be found on page jSO. 

The Council would be encourafged if a larger number of children of the 
members would take an interest in these geographical competitions, and make 
a point of regularly replying to the questions set. They feel that an 
interesting and useful educational opportunity is lost by those who neglect the 
questions, and they appeal to the parents to endeavour to stimulate the young 
people in so useful an effort. 

The Council have offered a prize to be awarded on the results of the 
examinations in Geography at the Victoria University, and desire to acknow- 
ledge their indebtedness to the member who has arranged to defray the 
expense. 

The Balance Sheet for the year, with the Beport of the Hon. Auditor, is 
presented herewith. 

The Council regret to say that the response to their special appeal in 
last year's Beport for further donations to the Fund for Furnishing the 
New Premises and for liquidating the outstanding deficiency has been less 
satisfactory than they had hoped and expected. The fund has only been 
augmented by a sum of £24. This addition brings up the total of the fund 
to £365. 

It will be remembered that £600 was asked for, and as this would only 
work out at about £1 per head among the members, if all had subscribed, 
the Council felt that they would have no difficulty in raising such a sum in 
view of the great needs of the Society, and the special circumstances under 
which the appeal was made. As a few generous members kindly contributed 



8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

stuns varying from £5 to £25, it is quite evident that leas than one-qaarter 
of our members have availed themselves of the opportunity of assisting the 
Society in the time of necessity. As the fund is still open, it is hoped that 
those who have so far omitted to subscribe will now see their way to do so. 

Apart from the exceptional outlay incurred in connection with the 
"Journal," the expenses for the year have been kept as low as possible, 
without injury to the progressive work of the Society. 

In conclusion, the Council appeal earnestly to the members to do their 
part in introducing new blood, with a view to larger membership and a 
consequent increase of income and general efficiency. The great commercial 
district of which Manchester is the centre is certainly able to place this 
Society in the position to which it has a right to aspire. It is evident that so 
far the community referred to has not fully realised the needs of the situation, 
nor the strong and important call which geography makes upon it. If, 
however, each member will make it a personal matter to urge the claims of 
the Society upon his friends there is every reason to hope that the work and 
usefulness may be much extended, and the future of the Manchester 
Geographical Society be placed beyond doubt. 

THE REPORT OF THE HON. EXAMINER IN GEOGRAPHY. 

In presenting the annual report of my examination of the answers to the 
geographical questions set to your young people during the year 1906, I have 
first to note the large and gratif3ring increase in the number of competitors. 
In 1905 they were sixteen, this year forty-five. I have next to record the 
re-appearance of the junior class of c(mipetitor, two little men of eight and 
nine years having sent in very creditable papers. Thirdly, I have to notice a 
development at the other end of the age mark; five competitors exceed the 
age of sixteen, one even passing eighteen. The quality of the work is 
distinctly good, the maps especially offering a great contrast to tfaoee 
presented in the initial years of this competition. The written answers also 
are on the whole very satisfactory. Of course there are some amusing 
specimens. Patriotism probably inspired the statements that " Oldham is the 
greatest manufacturing town in the world," and that ** Oxford is the oldest 
University in the world.'* Your Society, having once selected Ribchester 
for a visit, will not be surprised to learn that it is "one of the most 
important towns in Lancashire." Some local consideration must have 
influenced the writers of the following sentences : " Oxford is noted for its 
college called Magdalen College. It has also a large University." "Fashoda 
is one of the most important towns in Africa." "Britain owes Columbia 
to Ireland." "Derby is noted for its races." "Preston for shipbuilding." 
Confusion of names is probably responsible for the assertions that "at Tara 
Sir Thomas Moore composed his poetry called the Irish Melodies," and 
" while the earthquake was doing its deadly work in the city large waves were 
flooding the shore of California. One of these was called the Seismic Wave." 
Careless composition appears in "these States are washed by the Pacific 
Ocean on the West and on the South by Lower California," and "after 



Annual Meeting 8i 

cutting the telephone wires the prison walls were climed (sic), the warders 
were attacked, and set free the prisoners." It is rather startling to learn 
that ** India was discovered by the Portuguese about 1550/' and it is rather 
severe upon certain traders to say that Xeres is ** noted for its wines and its 
sherry." Perhaps the most appalling mis-statement is that the Baltic ''for 
the most part of the year is covered in several places by small icicles, which, 
in cold weather, form icebergs." 

Spelling shows much weakness, over eighty common English words appear 
more or less disguised, mostly in such a way as to show that the writers did 
not pronounce accurately; mis-spelling of proper names is due to careless 
copying, and is quite inexcusable in such quantities as have been sent in. 

To the competitors I suppose the final result is the most interesting, and to 
this I now come. Full marks were 300, and all competitors were judged by 
the same standard. The award is as follows : — 



Juniors (under 10). 

Arthur Wilson 110— Prize. 

Lower Middle Division (10 to 12). 

Arabella Constance Pollard 270 — 1st Prize. 

James Broadhurst 255 — 2nd Prize. 

Ernest Wallwork 175— 3rd Prize. 

Upper Middle Division (12 to 14). 

Harold Bentley 266— Ist Prize. 

Frank Hollingworth 225— 2nd Prize. 

Mary MacPherson 220' 

Sam Sharrock 215 Awards 

Reginald Bentley 200 1 of 

William Neill 190 Merit. 

Herbert Horridge 185 

Senior Division (14 to 18). 

Albert Davenport 290 — 1st Prize. 

Dora Newlove 275— 2nd Prize. 

Jessie Hampson 272 — 3rd Prize. 

Nettie Hall 266' 

Edith Newlove 260 

Marie Beck 260 Awards 

Eustace Halliwell 235 1 of 

Mabel Lee 230 Merit. 

Alice Kay 225 



JAS. D. WILDE, M.A. (Oxon), 

Principal of Highbury House, 

St. Leonards-on-Sea, Examiner. 



82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



REPORT OF THE "VICTORIANS," 1906-1907. 

The work of the YictoriaiiB, which has been for several years mainly that 
of delivering lectures in the towns sarrounding Manchester, has been carried 
on during the winter, though to a more limited extent than in previous years. 
On the first Saturday in the year the usual Christmas party for the children 
of members was held, and was again very successful. The prizes gained in the 
Children's Greographical Examination were distributed by Mrs. Eli Sowerbutts. 
Many of the prizes were kindly presented by Dr. W. J. Hoyten and by 
J. P. Hughes, Esq., while one member. Professor R. W. Swallow, of the 
Shansi University again favoured the young folks with a large Christmas cake. 

We have to record with regret that the Rev. F. A. Rees, who has been 
one of our lecturers for several years, is leaving Manchester, which will result 
in the loss of his valuable services as a Victorian Lecturer. While regretting 
his departure, we are glad to know that his connection with the Society will 
not be severed. 

The following lectures, all illustrated with specially-made lantern slides, 
were delivered by the "Victorians" during the Session from October, 1906, 
to March, 1907 :— 

October, 1906. 

25-^heetham Hill (St. Mark's Literary Society). Mr. J. Howard Reed. 

' 30 — Bolton (Church House). " A Ramble through an Undiscovered Country 
and the English Holland." Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

November. 

7 — Whitefield (Miss Philips). " A Ramble through an Undiscovered Country 
and the English Holland." Mr. M. W. Thompstone. 

December. 

7— Nicholls Hospital (Mr. J. S. Reid). " Some Great African Travellers and 

their Discoveries." Mr. J. Howard Reed. 
15— Oldham (Free Public Libraries' Conmiittee). "Rhodesia: Our latest 
Colony." Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

January, 1907. 
3— Stretford (Rev. F. A. Rees). "From Capetown to Cairo." Mr. J. 

Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 
7— -Leigh (Literary Society). "Rome— the Life of a Great City." Mr. 

John R. Smith. 
14— Farnworth-with-Kearsley P.C.M.I. Society. "British South Africa." 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 
16— Todmorden (Rev. A. W. Fox, M.A.). "British South Africa." Mr. 
J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 



Annual Meeting 



83 



23 — ^Patricroft (Eccles Go-operative Society). "Elillarney Lakes." Mr. H. C. 
Martin, F.R.G.S. 

29 — Greenacrea (Oldham Free Public Libraries' Gommittee). ''Up the 
Mediterranean.'* Bev. F. A. Rees (Bhysfa). 

February. 
4 — ^Levenshukne. "Arctic." Mr. G. H. Warren. 

&— Whitefield (Miss Philips). "Water Action Shaping the Earth." Mr. 
H. G. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

25— Dukinfield (Mr. T. H. Gordon, C.C., B.A.). "From Capetown to Cairo." 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 
26— Hale (Mr. T. Burton). "Ancient Egypt." Mr. J. S. Reid. 



LIST OF DONATIONS. 

(See page 86.) 
£ s. d. 



Sm per first list (see "Journal," 

Vol. XXn., page 84) 841 16 6 

lir. George Thomas (second) ... 5 5 

iCr, S. L. Helm 5 

Councillor J. Dean 2 2 

Mr. A. J. Pidd 2 2 



Miss Leech 

Councillor J. Stevenson 

The late Mr. W. H. Cowburn ... 

Mr. A. Goodwin (second) 

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Annual Meeting 87 

The yice-Ghancellor of Victoria University, in moving the adoption of the 
Report and Balance Sheet, said that he was sorry to see the amount of the 
deficit, and hoped that there would be an immediate response to the appeal 
for each member to subscribe one sovereign. The Geographical Society had 
established itself, and its work ought to be more widely known, although 
in some quarters it was well known, and was proved to have done good work. 
It was not a Society of mushroom growth, but had steadily developed its 
work. It had a local habitation in St. Mary's Parsonage, which served to 
some extent the purposes of a club. It was a convenient place, and with its 
library and collections was an institution that might be more widely used than 
it was by those who wished for information about questions affecting trade 
or their travels. The Society served, further, as a valuable means for the 
interchange of information among those who had special knowledge. The 
{Society was of great value in influencing^ public opinion, especially of those 
engaged in educational matters. Geography was the basis of all knowledge, 
whether administrative, civil or military. In conclusion, the educational side 
of the work of the Society was spoken of. Lectures were given on subjects 
of the greatest interest by those who could speak at first hand, and there 
was, of course, a great influence exerted through their scheme for the 
examination of children. Speaking from his own early experience of the value 
of Geographical study, the yice-Chancellor added : "It makes the mind 
orderly, the imagination vivid and true, and it aids the memory. I do not 
believe history ought to be taught without the atlas open before you.'* 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., in seconding the motion, also referred to 
the adverse balance, and spoke of the necessity of stimulating interest in the 
Society and increasing the membership, which was now almost six hundred. 
Manchester had been founded by geographers, and therefore why did not 
Manchester men and women support the Society in common with other 
societies. So far they were too busy with their commercial concerns to 
interest themselves in the Society, but the time would come when its 
importance would be brought home. Its work was an Imperial work for the 
beneflt of the community at large. 

The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, in supporting the motion, said that 
there was still much ignorance of Geography in the country, as evidenced at 
the time of the South African War, and great need for a Geographical Society 
to spread a knowledge of the subject. 

The Resolution that the Annual Report and Balance Sheet be adopted 
was passed unanimously. 

The Yice-Chancellor then took the Chair. 

Mr. J. Stephenson Reid, in moving the next resolution, spoke, as an old 
member, in very appreciative terms of the services of the officers and Council 
during the year, and of the special services given by the members of the 
Executive Committee. 

Mr. A. Balmforth, as a new member, congratulated the Council on the 



S8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

very successful series of lectures given, and seconded the following resolution, 
-which was carried unanimously : — 

"That the best thanks of the Society be given to the Officers and 
Council for their services during the year.** 

Mr. Richardson Campbell moved, Mr. J. W. O'Leary seconded, and it 
was resolved : — 

''That the Officers and Council be re-elected with the following 
alterations : Mr. H. Woolley, F.R.G.S., to be a Vice-President and 
Messrs. Q. Ginger, F. S. Oppenheim and J. Stephenson Reid to be 
added to the Council." 

List of Officers and Council as elected : — 

President : 
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.O. 



Th« Right Hon. the Lord Mayor or 

Manohxstkr. 
Hla Worship the Mayor of Oldhak. 
His Worship the Mayor OF Salford. 
The Vicb-Chanckllor of Victoria 

UMIVBR8ITY. 

The Rt. Rev. Monsigmor Gadd, V.G. 
Sir W. H. HouLXNiwoRTH, Bart 
The Hon. W. Rothschild, M.P. 
Sir C. £. Schwann, Bart, M.P. 
Sir H. F. De Trafford, Bart. 
Sir Frank Forbkm Adam, CLE. 
Sir W. H. Holland, M.P. 
Alderman Sir Bobdin T. Lskch, J. P. 
Sir Joskfh Leigh, J.P. 
Sir William Mather, J. P. 
Mr. Frederick Burton. 
Mr. J. F. Chsetbam, M.P. 



Vice-Presidents : 

His Grace the Dukb of Dbvonbhirk, K.G. 
The Right Hon. the Earl of Dkrby, K.G. 
The Right Hon. the Earl Egerton of Tatton. 
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Salford. 



Mr. F. Zimmern. 



Profeesor T. H. Cork, M. A. 

Mr. William Crosslby, M.P. 

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, J.P., F.RSw 

Alderman Jamxh Duckworth. M.P. 

Mr. J. G. Grovbh, J.P. 

Mr. J. S. Higham, M.P. 

Mr. E. W. Mkllor, J.P.,F.R.G.S. 

Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P„ F.R.G.8., 

Vice-Chairman of the Coancil. 
Mr. S. Oppenhbim, J. P., Consul for 

Austria-Hungary. 
Mr. J. Howard Rbbd, F.R.G.S. 
Mr. C. P. SooiT. J.P. 
Mr. H. SowLBR. J.P. 
Rev. 8. A. Stbinthal. F.R.G.S., 

Chairman of the Council. 
Mr. J. D. Wilde, M.A. 
Mr. Hermann Woollby, F.R.G.S. 



Trustees: 

Mr. H. NtTTALL, M.P., F.R.G.S. | Mr. Sydney L. Kbymbr, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. E. W. Mbllor, J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Hon. Treasuper : Mr. David a. Liitlb. 

Hon. Secretaries : Mr. F. Zimmern, Mr. J. Howard Rbbd, F.R.G.S., and 
Mr. C. A. Clarke, Hon. Sec. Victorians. 



Council : 



Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.& 

Mr. Jak. Bakningham. 

Mr. G. T. Bowes. 

Mr. J. C. Chorlton, J.P. 

Mr. C. CoLLMANN, Consul for Cierman 

Empire. 
Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., C.E. 
Mr. G. Ginger. 
Mi^or E. W. (}reg, J.P., C.C, 

F.R.G.S. 
Mr, Councillor T. Hasball, J.P. 



Mr. A. J. Kbnnbdy, F.R.G.S. 

Mr. N. KoLP. 

Mr. J. McFarlanb, M.A. 

Mr. H C. Martin, F.R.G.S. 

Mr T. C. Middlbton, J. P. 

Mr. F. S. Oppenheim. 

Mr. R, C. Phillips. 

Mr. J. Stephenson Reid. 

Mr. Councillor John Snaddon. 

Mr. T. W. Sowbrbuttb, A.S.A.A. 

Mr. Gborge Thomas. 



Annual Meeting 89 

Mr. C. A. Clarke moved, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts seconded, and it was 
unanimously resolved : — 

*' That the best thanks of the Society be tendered to Mr. Theodore 
Gregory, F.C.A., for his services as Hon. Auditor, and that he be 
re-elected." 

It was moved by Mr. Joel Wainwright, J. P., seconded by Mr. J. Howard 
Reed, F.B.G.S., and resolved unanimously : — 

"That the best thanks of the meeting be tendered to the Lord Mayor 
for the use of his parlour, and more especially for his kindness in 
presiding." 

The kind services of the Vice-Chancellor in taking the chair in place of 
the Lord Mayor were acknowledged in a similar manner. 

The Vice-Chancellor gave a suitable response. 



90 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



procccWnga of tbc Societ^^ 

April Ist to June 30th, 1907. 

The 755th Meeting of the Society was held in the Geographical Hail on 
Tuesday, April 9th, 1907, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, the Rev. Fred A. Rees. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on March 26th were taken as read. 

The Election of the following Ordinary Members was announced : — 
Messrs. T. von Zabem, R. Emmett Hailwood and J. E. Collier. 

The death was mentioned of Alderman James Greenwood, J. P., of Burnley, 
who has been a member for twenty years, and it was resolved that the 
sympathy of those present be conveyed to his relatives in their bereavement. 

Mr. John R. Smith gave some ''Interesting Reminiscences of the Life 
of William Cowper (poet), his Rural Walks in and about Olney, with 
Quotations from his Works." The address was illustrated with many Lantern 
Slides. 

Mr. D. A. Little moved, Mr. C. A. Clarke seconded, and it was resolved, 
that the thanks of the Meeting be given to Mr. Smith for his interesting 
address. 



The 756th Meeting of the Society was held in the Geographical Hall on 
Tuesday, April 16th, 1907, at 7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. R. Cobden Phillips. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on April 9th were approved. 

The death of Mr. Richard Armistead was mentioned, and a resolution was 
passed unanimously that the sympathy of the Members present be conveyed 
to his relatives in their bereavement. 

The Election of Mr. R. A. Staniforth as an Ordinary Member was 
announced. 

Mr. R. Ernest Hope (late of Lokoja) lectured on "With Pen and Camera 
in Nigeria." The address was illustrated with a large number of original 
Lantern Slides. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., moved, and Mr. John Godbert seconded, 
a cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Hope for his very interesting address, and the 
resolution was passed unanimously. 



ANNUAL DINNER. 

The Annual Dinner of the Society was held at the Albion Hotel on 
Friday, April 26th, 1907, at 7 p.m., with Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S., 
in the chair. There were also present Colonel H. T. Crook, J. P., Councillor 
J. Snaddon, Messrs. H. Woolley, F.R.G.S., J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., 
H. C. Martin, F.R.G.S., J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., T. W. Sowerbutts, 



Proceedings 91 

A.S.A.A., C. A. Clarke, R. C. Phillips, A. Balmforth, T. Kyle Dawson, 
H. Forsyth, and J. Howard Hall, Mr. and Mrs. E. Hoyle, Messrs. H. 
Preston, J. Stephenson Beid, G. H. Seed, John B. Smith and others. 

After the usual loyal toasts had been honoured, the President, H.R.H. the 
Prince of Wales, being specially mentioned, Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., 
F.R.G.S., proposed: "The City of Manchester and Borough of Salford." 
He referred to the recent deputation to the Prime Minister with regard to the 
development of Northern Nigeria as an example of the importance of the 
study of Geography in connection with such a centre as Manchester. The 
British Cotton Growing Association believed, from investigations made, that 
Northern Nigeria would grow all the cotton, middlings and good middlings, 
that Lancashire, and in fact all the Cotton Mills in the world, could consume. 
The importance of the deputation was, therefore, apparent, and as a result 
of the pressure which had been continued for a long time on the Government, 
they had decided to send out a representative to Nigeria to ascertain the 
feasibility of constructing a railroad from the Coast. 

Colonel Crook, in proposing "The Manchester Geographical Society," 
said that they were not in any sense specialists, and for his part he 
thought they ought not to follow those who would make of Geography a 
high and dry science. This was a tendency to be resisted. They ought to 
instil into the rising generation that spirit which he thought was more 
conspicuous in past times — that of adventure and travel. There were many 
young men in Manchester offices who had no desire to go out of their own 
country. There were so many pastimes and amusements now in this country 
that young men were not driven abroad in search of change of life as they 
were fifty or one hundred years ago. Such work as that Society's ought to 
revive that spirit of adventure which had formerly sent our young people 
forth in pursuit of knowledge and business to the uttermost ends of the 
earth. 

In responding, Mr. J. Howard Reed said this great commercial city of 
Manchester (including therein the Borough of Salford and the surrounding 
district) should put the Society into such a strong position as to enable them 
to continue in their good work and to launch out into other schemes of 
development. He said : '* Our work has been eminently successful, and our 
records show that the Society has carried on this useful work in the years 
that have already gonei We have not done all we wish to do, but if we 
could only do something to tickle the imagination of the great commercial 
peoples of Manchester, who, due to the work of Geographers, have been able 
to accumulate their present interests, it would only be a few days before the 
Society would be in a flourishing condition. 

Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S., proposed: "The Royal and other 
Geographical Societies," to which Mr. J. E. Balmer, F.R.G.S., responded. 

Mr. Reed moved, Mr. Phillips seconded, and it was resolved that the 
seven Colonial Premiers be elected Hon. Members of the Society. 

Councillor Snaddon then proposed the final toast of "The Chairman," 
who responded in a suitable manner. 



92 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

The 758th Meeting of the Society was held on the site of the Roman 
Camp, at Castlefield, Manchester, on Saturday, April 27th, 1907. 

Mr. Joseph J. Phelps met the Memhers at 3 p.m., and led them to the 
different parts of the site, first showing them a portion of the eastern Roman 
wall under a railway arch, where, though somewhat protected, it still needs 
further care. He described the various trenches dug during the last few 
months under the direction of Members of the Excavation Conmiittee of the 
Classical Association, the reasons for their construction, and the results 
obtained. 

Mr. Phelps then, by the aid of diagrams, explained the known position 
of the walls, etc., of the Roman Castrum, and the value of the various 
sections and finds which may aid the endeavour to gain further information 
as to the History of the Site. 

He finally gave a very interesting account of some of the most characteristic 
of the various objects found. 

Mr. J. Howard Hall moved, and Mr. Ward seconded, a resolution that 
Mr. Phelps receive the sincere thanks of those present for the very interesting 
way in which he had described what had been done to increase our knowledge 
of the Roman Fort at Manchester. The resolution was passed unanimously, 
and Mr. Phelps made a suitable response. 



The 759th Meeting of the Society was held in the Victoria Hall, GIossop, 
on Saturday, June 29th, 1907. 

Mr. R. Hamnett, Hon. Secretary of the GIossop and District Antiquarian 
and Natural History Society, met the Members at GIossop Station, and the 
party proceeded to the Victoria Hall, where the various objects found at 
Melandra have been labelled and arranged in cases, which greatly facilitates 
their inspection and study. A very profitable couple of hours was spent 
listening to Mr. Hamnett's very interesting account of the finds. 

After tea, Mr. S. Massey moved, Mrs. A. de Bolivar seconded, and it 
was carried unanimously, that a hearty vote of thanks be tendered to Mr. 
Hamnett for his kindness. 

Mr. Hamnett, in responding, gave some particulars of the recent history 
of Melandra, and spoke of his early attempts at excavation and how the 
lease was obtained. 

* * * 



Reviews 93 



1?CP(eW0. 



"A Book of the Cevennes." By S. Baring Gould, M.A. London : John Long, 

1907. 

The district in Central France, known as "The Cevennes," is not so well 
known to English tourists as many other parts of the Republic, but it is rich 
in many attractions, offering varied geological phenomena of great interest, 
wild and lovely mountain scenery and places filled with historical associations, 
which carry one's mind from the stone age through the varied stages by 
which mankind has reached its present civilization. With sympathetic spirit, 
Mr. Gould records what he has seen, and tells the tale of what has happened 
in the places he has visited, and has illustrated his book with eight coloured 
plates and six reproductions of photographs, giving his readers a most attrac- 
tive conception of the picturesque character of the country and its inhabitants. 
We have been struck with the impartial spirit with which the author tells his 
tale of the persecutions and religious wars which make the historical associa- 
tions of the Cevennes mainly tragic and have gratefully marked the humour 
which has led him to brighten the tale of human cruelty now and then with 
legends of amusing though credulous superstition. We have noticed here and 
there slight errors, and curiously arranged paragraphs, which suggest that the 
volume might have been improved, by a more careful revision of the final 
proofs, and we have never failed, as time after time we turned to the sketch 
map given, to regret the absence of a fuller map to enable one to localize the 
places visited, the relative positions of the various mountain ranges, and the 
courses of the rivers which have cut their way through them. Mr. Baring 
Gould, in his preface, tells his readers that his work is not a guide-book, but 
the interest it cannot fail to arouse, will, we feel assured, send many to the 
Cevennes, and promote the sale of guide-books to those who wish to see the 
localities about which they have been reading so fascinating and instructive a 
narrative. g^ j^^ g^ 



" Handy- Volume Atlas of the World." By E. G. Ravbnstein, F.R.G.S. 
Seventh edition, revised to date. London: George Philip & Son, Ltd., 
1907. 3s. 6d. 

For a well-compiled, illustrative and interesting book, the new edition of 
Philip's " Handy- Volume Atlas " speaks for itself. The statistics have evi- 
dently been carefully compiled, while the maps are excellent. 



94 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The whole book is one which can be easily and clearly followed by anyone 
who may consult it. 

The Atlas, as it stands, in the hands of an International Commercial 
Traveller, or of an ordinary Tourist, would be most useful ; but it might be 
made invaluable if a little information on the coinage of different nations could 
be added in future editions. 

The volume is well bound, light, of such a size as to be easily portable, and 
is altogether one which will, we are sure, often prove a friend in need. 

J.H.R. 



" Map of the Gold Coast." Published by the authority of Sir John Pickeks* 
GILL Rodger, K.C.M.G., Governor, under the direction of Major F. G. 
GuGGiSBBRG, R.E., F.R.G.S., Director of Surveys, Gold Coast. Engraved 
and Printed by Messrs. W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd., Edinburgh and 
London, Sheet 72, K. iii., March 1907. Price 2s. 

Major Guggisberg has shown in this, the first sheet of the Gold Coast 
Survey, what can be done in the way of producing a map expeditiously, and 
with all the accuracy essential to the scale without awaiting the expensive and 
tedious process of triangulation. It is a specimen of a class of work which has 
been almost entirely neglected, especially in the colonies and Dependencies of 
the British Empire. Mainly through the influence and example of the 
Ordnance Survey any method less accurate than triangulation had come to be 
looked upon with contempt, so that there has been in new countries nothing to 
fill the gap between the small geographical sketch and strictly local land 
surveys. 

The scale of the map is V i3s««« or a very little more than half-an-inch to the 
mile. For a map of this scale there never was any necessity to wait for a 
triangulation, for a triangulation really provides no more information than can 
be obtained with almost equal accuracy by traverse and plane table surveys 
based upon a number of astronomically ascertained positions. 

The map is, of course, at present more or less a skeleton map, but the 
difference between what is absolutely surveyed and what is conjectural, is 
carefully indicated. The gaps can always be filled in in future editions. 

The printing is tastefully done in three colours, an extensive explanatory 
table of conventional signs, etc., and a useful note- on the orthography and 
pronunciation of the names are given in the margin. The demarkation of the 
various concessions, made to companies and individual adventurers, appears 
unnecessarily heavy. As the concessions run very generally with the rivers, 
the detail of the rivers is somewhat obscured; on the other hand, it may be 
urged that the demarkation of the concessions b one of the chief reasons for 
making the map. 

On the whole, Sir John Pickersgill -Rodger, the Governor, and Major 
Guggisberg are to be congratulated upon this enterprise. 

H. T. C. 



Farm Life in New Zealand 95 



FARM LIFE IN NEW ZEALAND. 

(By Kindness of Mr, Joel Waimvriffht, J. P.J 

Te Hopai, Kahutura, Featherston, 

New Zealand, February 14th, 1907. 

Dear Mr. Wainwright, — I was very pleased to receive your 
Christmas card. It is pleasant, when living such a long way from 
home, to be so kindly remembered, I hope you spent an enjoyable 
Christmas, and will have a Happy New Year. 

After having spent nearly a year in the " back-blocks,'^ I have 
oome into a settled district for a change; and, needless to say, in 
many ways it is very much pleasanter. This is a pretty bit of 
country here. A wide, flat valley runs from Featherston to the sea, 
about thirty-five miles. It is bounded by a high range of hills — the 
Rimutaka on the west side, and a lower range on the east, and along 
the foot of the Rimutaka Hills the Wairarapa Lake lies. The lake 
is about twelve miles long, and a good deal of the land, which is now 
running stock, was formerly covered with water. The lagoons are 
covered with wild swans (the black Australian) and ducks; the latter 
are getting less numerous each year. 

On one portion of the farm there is a 1 2-horse power oil-engine, to 
pump off the water in winter. The reason for this is, that when the 
river gets high, the flood-gate of the drain has to be closed to keep 
the river- out, and the drain water can't get away unless it is pumped 
out. A piece of the swamp land is taken in each year, the coarse 
grass burnt off, and the grass roots dug off and carted away,. It is 
then ploughed and sown in rape or turnips for a season or two, and 
then turned into pasture in English grasses. 

This is entirely a fattening farm. Old ewes are bought in March 
or April, they lamb in the spring, and the first lambs go away fat 
from their mothers about December; the mothers follow the lambs 
about a month later. The lambs are about 13s. 6d. a head, the ewes 
about 15s., after cutting at least 5s. of wool. The ewes cost about 
148. a head in the first place, and as they average more than a lamb 
per ewe generally in this flat country, that leaves a profit of £1 per 
ewe by the lambs and wool, and a little over to cover loss. 

The place at present runs 1,200 ewee. Besides this, after the 
BRED lambs have all gone, about 2,000 BOUGHT LAMBS should be 
fattened off, on rape; by the beginning of winter they make a profit 
of about 4s. a head. Also each year about 300 bullocks are turned 
off fat, at a profit of about £2 per head. The farm is all dead flat 



96 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

land, and subject to floods, as it lies below the level of the river 
banks; a good portion of it has now been banked up, and all of it 
will be so in time. The whole is four miles wide, and is surrounded 
by shallow lagoons. There is one big river, the Ruamahanga, and a 
few smaller ones flow across the valley, and empty into the lake. 
The farm is bounded by the Ruamahanga River for about five miles, 
from the main road to where the river flows into the lake. The river 
is fairly wide and deep, and has practically no current down here. 
It is full of large trout, averaging about 2^1bs., and also contains 
numerous eels and flounder, a fish very much like plaice, which we 
catch in nets. 

The farm contains about 600 acres in English grasses, 700 acres 
coarse swamp grasses, 700 acres native flax, which runs a small 
amount of stock, and on which a flax mill pays a good royalty for 
the right of cutting. There are also about 1,000 acres of the shallow 
lagoons which I mentioned. In a few years these will probably be 
drained off, and make first-class land. The district is subject to 
floods, but as it is very rich land, it has its compensations. 

The native flax is a fine plant ; it has a growth somewhat similar 
to the sweet-flag which grows round ponds at home, only it is much 
taller and stronger. It has a fine red flower, which grows on a long 
stalk. There is another very pretty reed which grows among the 
flax called " Toi-Toi." It has a big waving top, like prairie grass, 
which is very plentiful here. 

The fishing hereabouts is very good, but I have hardly done any. 
I am generally too tired in the evening, and on Sundays I usually 
go out to friends. I was fishing last Sunday, but caught nothing. 
I had my cast broken by a fish about 51bs. weight. 

I must conclude now, hoping you are keeping well. 



I remain. 

Your young friend, 



G. L. 



CDe Journal 



OF THE 



mancDester fieograpDlcal Socletp. 

* * * 

EXPEEIENCES IN EAST AFRICA. ^ 

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Hindlip. 

(Addressed to the Society, in the Geographical Hall, on Tuesday, 
March 26th, 1907.) 

The East Africa Protectorate is bounded on the South by 
German East Africa, on the East by the Indian Ocean, on the 
North by Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia, and on the West 
by Uganda. 

Until about the last two years, the Protectorate has been 
only occasionally brought to the notice of the public by various 
incidents such as the Uganda Mutiny, the transfer of the 
country from the old East Africa Company to Imperial control, 
and a question or so in the House of Commons. But this is 
geography, which I understand is now a matter of no import- 
ance. 

A pleasant surprise awaits the traveller when his ship bringa 
him in sight of the East African coast near Mombasa and for a 
long distance southwards. Instead of the arid waste which he 
has seen in passing through the Suez Canal and the Red Sea, 
and the Somaliland coast from Guardaf ui, or possibly the bare 
hills on the South African coast, he will be inclined to wonder 
whether by some mischance his ship has brought him, not to 
Vol. XXIII. No. 3, 1907. 



98 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

the African coast, but to some rich tropical island in the East 
Indies. Cocoanut trees are growing in profusion, while at 
Mombasa and other old Portuguese posts, mango trees are fairly 
plentiful. The whole coast is covered with green trees and 
vegetation, which stretch into a long line of hills running 
parallel with the coast. 

Mombasa itself is an island, and as may be gathered from 
its native name, Mvita, meaning the island of war, was the 
scene of many sanguinary struggles between the Portuguese and 
the Arabs from about 1500. The remains of ancient fortifica- 
tions still exist all along the East coast wherever the old settle- 
ments were made. 

Mombasa harbour is picturesque but small, the chief port for 
the Protectorate now being on the other side of the island and 
called Eilindini, one of the finest of many fine harbours along 
the coast, and capable of holding a large number of big ships. 

The climate of Mombasa reminds me more or less of 
Colombo, and I do not think that it can be considered un- 
healthy; in fact, as there is practically no proper division 
between the European and the native towns, and the water 
supply consists solely of wells in a coral formation, and of rain 
water conserved in tanks, it is almost a wonder that there has 
not yet been a disastrous outbreak of disease. 

Mombasa, and a strip of 10 miles in breadth, the whole 
length of the coast of the Protectorate, are still a portion of the 
dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, and it is the coast belt for 
a distance of some 20 miles from the coast which I think will 
attract a considerable amount of attention, during the next few 
years, owing to its richness and its suitability for tropical pro- 
ducts such as rubber, cocoanuts, fibres, cotton and such like. 

In German East Africa, at and near Tanga, which is only 
a short distance from the Southern frontier of the British 
Protectorate, and along the Usambara railway which runs a 
short distance from Tanga towards the district of Kilimanjaro, 
very great success has been met with by the business-like 
German planters, who, equipped with a thoroughly scientific 



Experiences in East Africa 99 

knowledge of the subject, have been planting chiefly rubber and 
sisal, and it is owing to the data and facilities offered in German 
East Africa, such as particulars of soil, rainfall, etc., that a 
considerable amount of capital will, I think, be attracted there, 
which should and ought, with a little care and encouragement, 
be directed to British territory. Immense strides have been 
made by the Germans in rubber and sisal cultivation ; a repre- 
sentative of a City firm told me the other day that owing to the 
scientific methods applied by the Germans to the sisal fibres, the 
sisal from German East Africa was worth £35, and I have 
heard, £38 a ton in London, as against £30 for Mexican and 
£22 for Indian, a contrast between German and other methods. 
Accurate statistics of rainfall, etc., are deficient in British 
East Africa, or if existent, the majority of their light is care- 
fully hidden under a very large bushel, and several would-be 
investors have told me that they abstained from investing owing 
to the absence of data. 

Passing from the South of the coast belt northwards past 
Mombasa, the Tana river, with the exception of the first eighty 
miles of its course, where mosquitos exist in myriads, appears to 
present great possibilities in the way of products of a tropical 
nature, including cotton, and in many respects seems to have 
characteristics similar to Egypt and the Nile. Mr. Fawcus, who 
has only quite lately been up the Tana, attaches great import- 
ance to its possibilities. 

Lamu, an island a short distance North of the false mouth of 
the Tana, the real channel being silted up, is at present the 
headquarters of the trade of this district. All along the coast 
from the Tana southwards into German territory, a considerable 
and profitable trade is done in Mangrove bark, which is shipped, 
I believe, to Germany and to America, the export of this has 
increased by 100 per cent, duriiig the last 12 months. 

Further North again, almost at the northern limit of the 
coast lands of the Protectorate, is Eismayu, near the mouth of 
the Juba river, a river which will probably in the future play a 



^ » t\ 



zoo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

not unimportant part in the development of Southern Abyssinia 
and the intervening country inhabited by the Somalis. 

To return to Mombasa from the coast, I propose briefly to 
describe the country through which the Uganda Railway, which 
has received such severe criticism, passes. 

Leaving Mombasa, the railway crosses to the mainland by 
the Makupa bridge, which consists of 17 spans of 60 ft. girders 
on cylinder piers. After the first 20 miles or so, the breadth of 
the coast belt, the bush becomes thicker and interspersed with 
many fibrous plants, and water is very scarce. With the excep- 
tion of Voi, in the Teita district, there is nothing of much 
interest until Makindu is reached, 209 miles from the coast and 
at an elevation of 3,280 ft., and for the next 58 miles to Kiu 
there is some very fair grazing land, which should do well for 
indigenous cattle, goats and sheep, but here again water is a 
difficulty. 

Personally I believe that water could be supplied by means 
of artesian wells, which should tap some of the underground 
rivers said to exist somewhere under this part of the country. 
One or two somewhat abortive attempts at boring have been 
made by the railway people, but I do not know to what depth. 

Just before the train reaches Voi (mile 103) the traveller 
may expect to get his first sight of East African big game. The 
last time I went up the Bailway, about 18 months ago, a small 
herd of giraffes was seen close to the track. 

Voi (elevation 1830 ft.) is practically the end of the Taru 
desert, which used to form, in the old days, the bete noir of the 
traveller from the coast to the interior. From here there is a 
caravan road, over which I believe motor wagons now run to 
Taveta and the German district round Kilimanjaro. 

Several concessions have been taken up near Voi for the 
gathering and cultivation of fibres, the Voi river naturally 
attracting people to this part. 

Dinner is usually at Voi, which is reached as a rule shortly 
after dusk, and the country traversed during the ensuing night 



Experiences in East Africa loz 

is not of a very attractive character. In the morning the first 
object of interest which is sometimes visible from the train, is 
the snow-capped peak of Kilimanjaro, rising in solitary grandeur 
from the level plain, and from here to Nairobi, through the 
Kapiti andAthi plains, the line runs through what is practically 
an enormous ecological garden. The herds of harte beeste, 
wilde beeste, zebra and gazelles pay but little attention to the 
passing train, while lions have not unf requently been seen by 
passengers. But sometimes supposed lions have turned out to 
be Baboons. The whole of the district south of the Railway, 
practically from Voi to Nairobi, forms the game reserve, which 
I hope will be jealously guarded for some time to come. 

Near Machakos (mile 276), elevation 5,250 ft., which I con- 
sider to be the beginning of the white man's zone, considerable 
success has attended the efforts of an old pioneer of the country, 
in cultivating fruit, the apples grown there being in very great 
demand. 

The Eapiti and Athi plains, extending from mile 280 to 
Nairobi at mile 328, are chiefly remarkable for the quantity of 
game, and for the myriads of ticks which practically take posses- 
sion of oneself, one's clothes and bedding, and in the wet season 
when the grass is long, make life almost unbearable. 

Nairobi, at an elevation of 5,450 ft., is now practically the 
capital of the Protectorate. It is unfortunate that the town 
should have been built where it was; a mile or two into rising 
ground would have made all the difference, as owing to the lack 
of fall for the necessary drainage, the town will always present 
enormous difficulties to the sanitary authorities and the depart- 
ment which has charge of the streets, if it is allowed to remain 
where it is. 

The town, apart from the residential portion, has been con- 
demned over and over again by, I should imagine, every medical 
officer who has been even near it, and a sanitary engineer has 
been sent out this year by the Government to make a report. 
The headquarters of the Railway, troops and Land Department, 
are here, and, with the exception of the Customs, which are in- 



Z02 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

separable from the coast, all the Government headquarters will, 
no doubt, be established here shortly. 

Plague has appeared on more than one occasion, and is likely 
to do so more frequently in a more virulent form until native 
markets, Indian bazaars, and other places where filth collects, 
are properly supervised and placed under stringent sanitary 
regulations and entirely removed from the European quarter of 
the town. 

Nairobi, during the four years or so that I have known it, 
has made rapid progress. Tin shanties and wooden shacks now 
give way to more solid buildings of stone of good quality, which 
is plentiful in the vicinity. Cricket and football grounds, a 
racecourse, and an agricultural show, all find their place in or 
near the town. Hotels, which four years ago were practically 
non-existent, have sprung up, and really excellent accommoda- 
tion can be obtained. 

The value of land in Nairobi has increased enormously, and 
although it is difficult to believe that the present inflated prices 
are justified, there is apparently at present no sign of a slump. 
Land which a few years ago was practically valueless, now 
changes hands in many instances at from £50 to £80 an acre. 
Town plots in main streets have risen from £100 early in 1906 
to, in one or two cases, £500. 

I think the chief object of interest at Nairobi is the French 
Roman Catholic Mission, a few miles out of the town. Here, 
under the direction of Father Burke, a very considerable acreage 
has been put under coffee, which has done very well, and I 
believe, commands good prices on the French market. Coffee 
throughout the Kikuyu district appears to do well, the trees 
beginning to bear in about two and a half years. Like every- 
thing else in a new country, it has its detractors, and some say 
that the trees will exhaust themselves too quickly ; personally I 
am inclined to doubt this. 

Almost every conceivable species of garden produce is grown 
at the Mission in profusion, and I have seen peach trees that 



Experiences in East Africa 103 

were only three years old and grown from stone, literally 
weighed down with fruit. 

Some natives are being taught carpentering and other useful 
crafts, and in another part of the Mission a school for European 
children is conducted. 

Some 50 miles South of Nairobi, at an altitude of about 
2,500 ft., lies the lake of Soda, called by the natives Lake 
Magadi. Although many lakes in the surrounding country 
contain soda, none of them contain it to such an extent as this 
one. The whole surface of the lake is covered with a coating of 
soda, which, I believe, is from six to eight feet thick, and which 
is continually increasing. The East Africa Syndicate own a 
concession to work this soda, but so far little has been done 
with it. 

Leaving Nairobi, the Railway begins to climb the Kikuyu 
Escarpment, and it is here that the beautiful and attractive 
country begins. Signs of colonisation are everywhere visible on 
both sides of the line, snug homesteads springing up and land 
being brought into cultivation. 

After cresting the Kikuyu Escarpment, the track brings one 
down to the fine grazing land round Naivasha, Gilgil, and 
Elmenteita, which used to form a portion of the grazing lands 
of the Masai and which have been eagerly snapped up by 
settlers. 

Near Naivasha is the Government stock farm, which I think 
is now certainly one of the best, if not the best thing in the 
country. Here Mr. Hill shows with great pride the results of 
the experiments in stock raising and crossing of the native 
cattle and sheep with imported stock, and I think the results 
are on the whole satisfactory. 

The first cross with a native ewe and imported merino, from 
the point of view of the wool, is certainly encouraging. The 
carcase, as is only to be expected, is poor. The second cross is, 
I think, disappointing, probably owing to the fact that the 
difference between the first cross and the native animal is so 
marked. The merino sheep which were brought from South 



104 Journal of the Manchester Geografdiical Society 

Africa to the Government farm, although I believe in bad 
condition and suffering from scab on arrival, have on the whole 
done well. The crossing of the native cattle with imported 
stock, Herefords, Shorthorns, and Guernseys, has also been so 
far successful, though it remains to be seen whether it will be 
better to cross with imported stock, or whether, as I understand 
is the opinion of many from South Africa, it will be better to 
breed up by selection from the pick of the native cattle, which 
appear to be more or less immune from many diseases. 

The native cattle are small, but taking to the eye, and are 
extraordinarily docile. Their yield of milk is very small, but 
its quality makes up to a large extent for its quantity, and can 
almost be compared to the quality of the Jersey. 

As can be seen in the photo, the hump entirely disappears in 
the first cross. The cross is a much bigger animal, a calf a 
week old being nearly the same size as a native calf of four or 
five weeks. 

At Gilgil, the head station of the East African Syndicate, a 
flock of some four or five thousand merino sheep, which they 
imported from Australia at the beginning of the year, can be 
seen from the train. I do not know how these sheep have done, 
but it is to be sincerely hoped that this bold experiment will 
prove a success, as a wool industry would be the making of the 
country. There is no doubt that if sheep are to succeed, they 
will do so on the land between Naivasha and Nakuru, where the 
grass is short and sweet, having been heavily grazed by the 
Masai flocks. The rainfall from Naivasha almost to Nakuru is 
not sufficient for agricultural purposes, and cultivation, if 
attempted, would mean irrigation. 

The next station to Elmenteita is Nakuru, at an elevation of 
6,000 feet, situted some 3 miles from the northern shore of the 
lake of that name, and this in the future is likely to be a large 
agricultural centre : it is practically the end of what is at pre- 
sent considered the best country for sheep. 

Blue gums and black wattles planted some three and a half 
years ago have grown to a very considerable height, and it is 



Experiences in East Africa 105 

confidently expected that a large industry will be formed, as in 
Natal, for the growing of black wattle and the exportation of 
its valuable bark. 

To the north of Nakuru and Gilgil, at a little distance from 
the Railway, is the Likipia Escarpment and Plateau, now a 
reservation for the Masai, a nomadic tribe with a great reputa- 
tion for bravery, which personally I believe to be exaggerated. 
Their favourite occupation has always been that of raiding 
tribes weaker than themselves, and stealing cattle, which latter 
occupation they indulge in too frequently, and it will un- 
doubtedly give rise to serious trouble if their thieving propensi- 
ties are not checked. They are used by the Government as allies 
on their punitive expeditions, a form of' policy by no means 
generally accepted, as in the view of many it tends very strongly 
to maintain a spirit of tribal animosity. 

North of Nakuru, and West of the Likipia Escarpment, 
stretches a portion of the Rift Valley to Lake Baringo, approxi- 
mately 100 miles from the Railway. The country round Baringo 
used to be ideal for the sportsman, but it is unsuitable for settle- 
ment, dry except in the rainy season, and hot. Game was very 
plentiful. I remember one day some four years ago, seeing 
nine different species, all within an hour's walk from my camp, 
and two more species could probably have been found without 
any diflSiculty. Since that time, however, this district has been 
heavily shot over, and I believe a good deal of the game has 
been driven away. 

Lake Baringo itself is worthy of a little notice. It swarms 
with fish, and on, I think, two islands in the middle of the lake 
are hot springs where cooking can be done without any difficulty. 
Crocodiles abound in the lake, but for some reason or other, they 
have never been known to interfere with the natives, who, it is 
not an exaggeration to say, practically kick them out of their 
way. I have seen them fishing up to their necks in water, 
paying no heed to the crocodiles. 

North of Baringo, and slightly West, is the country in- 
habited by the Suk, a very friendly pastoral tribe who resemble 



zo6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

very much the Earamojo and Turkhana. I have seen it stated 
that the Suk claim relationship to the Masai, but personally I 
do not think this is likely to be correct ; their dress and appear- 
ance have no resemblance to the Masai, neither have their 
customs. 

Between Nakuru and Njoro (elevation 7,000 ft.) on the South 
side of the line lies the property in which I am interested. 

North of the Eailway, beginning at Njoro, is Lord Dela- 
mere's grant of land. 

As Nakuru is left, the Railway commences to climb up the 
Mau Escarpment; at Njoro, a distance of 12 miles, it has 
climbed 1,000 ft. 

Shortly after, and*near Elbergen, some 16 miles from Njoro, 
where Lord Delamere has established a saw mill, the scenic 
effects in the forest are very grand. Giant junipers rear their 
heads into the mist, which prevails at this high elevation. Dank 
masses of creepers and lichens cling to the moisture-laden 
branches, and long streamers of the grey beard moss wave 
mournfully in the wind. From far down in the dark rifts and 
gorges, almost shut out from the light of day by the dense 
vegetation, comes the sound of mysterious running waters, and 
as the train flashes round the curves, plunging on its way 
through the gloomy labyrinths of the forest, the mighty voice 
of Nature speaks in more inspiring language to the traveller. 

On leaving Londiani, where the road to the Ravine starts, 
the descent of the Escarpment begins, still passing through 
gorgeous scenery and forest, through Lumbwa to Fort Ternan 
(5,000 ft.), which, I think, along the line of the railway, is the 
end of the white man's country. 

Fourteen miles farther on, with a drop of some 800 ft., is 
Mohoroni, and now the Railway runs more or less on the level, 
through a hot and uninteresting plain, which continues down 
to the shore of Kavirondo Bay, with the Nandi hills some few 
miles to the North, and after passing two more stations, Sisumu, 
the terminus of the Railway, is reached, after a journey of 
584 miles, lasting approximately 46 hours. 



Experiences in East Africa 107 

Near Mohoroni, cattle grazing may possibly be carried on, 
bnt beyond here, semi-tropical products will be the rule, and 
this plain is not the district for a settler's permanent home. 
Cotton, ground nuts, rice and such like shoiuld do, and a small 
Indian settlement which was started a few years ago at Eibos 
has, I believe, been fairly successful. And more Indians are 
now to be imported. 

In German territory, on the South-east shore of the Victoria 
Nyanza, near Mwanza, I understand that Arabs and Indians 
have large plantations of rice, ground nuts, etc., and do a very 
considerable trade, and I see no reason why the same should not 
exist in this valley. 

It is most unfortunate that political and financial considera- 
tions caused it to be deemed necessary to carry the railway 
through this valley, and make the port on the Victoria Nyanza 
at Kisumu. The original survey across the Guas Ingishu to 
Port Victoria would have opened up a country superior in every 
way to the Nyando valley, capable of supporting a considerable 
population and surpassing it in practical products. At Port 
Victoria a good harbour could have been made with some 18 ft. 
of water, while at Kisumu there is only 8 ft., and from the 
amount of refuse, etc., which is continually being washed into 
the bay and the harbour, it is not unlikely that in a few years 
dredging will have to be resorted to. Owing to the shallowness 
of the water at Kisumu, the boats plying on the lake have to 
be of very light draft, and are consequently unable to carry as 
much cargo as they should do. 

I now propose to briefly describe the country North of the 
Railway and the Nandi country, known as Guas Ingishu, on 
which the Zionists at one time cast such coveteous glances. 
Leaving the line at Londiani, a march of about 20 miles along 
a very moderate cart road, through undulating and well-wooded 
country which is really part of the Mau Forest, brings one to 
Eldama Ravine, or as the natives call it, Shimone, which means 
a waterfall. This I think is one of, if not the most picturesque 
stations in the Protectorate, situated on the top of a hill at an 



xo8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

elevation of some 7,000 ft. It commands a magnificent view 
over the plains to Lake Baringo, and a little to the West, of the 
Kamasia hills. Beyond this range is the valley known as the 
Kerio valley, inhabited by Kamasia, Elgeyo, Mutei and 
Margweti tribes, the latter being not too favourably disposed to 
the Administration. 

Reports of the discovery of diamonds in this valley, and 
also in the plains between the Railway and Baringo, have been 
circulated from time to time, and have, I believe, caused the 
land to change hands at comparatively high prices, but so far 
nothing has come of it. 

Leaving Ravine station, the native track on to the Quas 
Ingishu leads westwards through a portion of the Mau, or 
perhaps more correctly the Elgeyo Forest, and the first night 
the camp is pitched in a small clearing, the track not leaving 
the forest for another couple of hours march the following day. 

Juniper, a species of Cedar, and Podocarpus, are the chief 
trees of the forest, where I believe a timber concession is held, 
but a great danger to be guarded against in timber concessions 
up country, which however, I do not think applies to timber on 
the coast, is that a very large proportion of the Cedar trees are 
hollow. 

On the two occasions that I have been through this part of 
the country, my first objective has been a hill called Sirgoit; 
on the first occasion it took me six days, and on the second 
occasion seven days to reach it from Ravine, and I noticed each 
time that the grass got much finer and shorter on about the 
fourth or perhaps fifth day's march, while the pick of the whole 
country and the favourite feeding ground of the game has been 
that piece of the country which surrounds Sirgoit for a distance 
of practically 10 or 12 miles in each direction. 

This large tract of country, which on two sides, the South 
and East, is bounded by dense forests, the Xandi forests on the 
South and the Elgeyo forest on the East, is not suitable for 
small holdings ; it is essentially a country for large ranches, as 
the homestead would have to be built on the fringe or the forest 



Experiences in East Africa 109 

and the stock runs extended out into the open plain. When 
transport facilities have improved I have no doubt that cultiva- 
tion will be carried on as well as grazing, but this also will have 
to be done on a large scale. If the country is given up to small 
holders, they will never be able to make a living at anything, 
and the whole of the centre of the plateau will be unused. 

Near Sirgoit is a small lake of the same name, known only 
to a few who have visited it, and even forgotten or unknown to 
many of the remains of the Guas Ingishu Masai, who used to 
inhabit this plateau. 

On the plateau are to be found some curious remains of old 
stone kraals, or cattle pits, relics of a bygone race. These 
kraals, or at any rate all I have seen, are circular or oblong, but 
I could not see any traces of a roof, and they are built out in 
the open plain far from any timber or even bushes. 

A short distance North of Sirgoit, the bush country begins 
and continues with different species of bush up to the edge of 
the plateau, looking over Turkwell valley. For some two days' 
march or more, the country is still good for grazing, but after- 
wards the grass is rank and rivers and swamps are the great 
obstacles to progress. This bush is the home of the five-horned 
Giraffe, which caused so much discussion when brought home 
by Sir Harry Johnston. These beautiful animals are com- 
paratively plentiful in this particular district, and as the 
country is uninhabited except for a few Wandarobo hunters, 
the animal is not killed for its hide as in other parts. 

From the northern edge odE the platea a marvellous view is 
obtained of the whole surrounding country. To the East and 
North-East are the wild rugged Suk hills. North is the Turk- 
well River, which winds through the Karamojo district towards 
Lake Budolph. Mount Debasien rises majestically to a height 
of over 9,000 ft. sheer out of the level plain, and seems to dwarf 
even Mt. Elgon, whose enormous size and the fact that it rises on 
one side from a high plateau, detracts from its height of 
14,200 ft. 

West of Debasien stretches another vast plain as far as the 



izo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

eye can see; one might imagine that there was nothing until 
the Nile. 

The Turkwell River is the boundary between East Africa 
and Uganda, and I will now retrace my steps along the slopes of 
Mt. Elgon back to Kavirondo. Before reaching Kavirondo, the 
country called Engabumi, or the Cave Dwellers, is passed. 
Some of these caves are very large. The first I found was a 
long narrow chamber, measuring some 210 feet to the extreme 
end, the doorway being carefully closed up with branches 
and logs. 

The two largest I found situated in a picturesque horseshoe- 
shaped kloof, with a waterfall in the centre. The first one was 
practically divided into two by fallen boulders, and the two 
compartments were connected by a kind of passage at the back, 
and a long narrow tunnel connected this passage again with a 
smaller cave, the distance from one extremity to the other being 
400 ft., and the greatest height 20 ft. 

The largest cave in the group in this part of Elgon was 
shaped like the figure 8, divided into two by a stockade across 
the middle, the outer portion being used as a granary, the 
inner as a dwelling. This was the most perfect cave I saw ; ita 
measurements being nearly 309 ft. from front to back, about 
150 ft. across and about 30 ft. high, but the size of the cavern 
possibly made the roof appear lower than it really was. 

I only found one cave into which it was unpleasant to enter. 

The origin of these caves has given rise to some speculation, 
but I do not think that they are anything more than the results 
of volcanic disturbances; they are much too extensive to have 
been the work of rude savages using inferior tools, and 
although I had been asked to examine them for any marks 
which might have been made by instruments, all the marks I 
found were explained by a Gabumi, or cave dweller, who told 
me that they chipped off pieces of the walls with the butt end 
of their spears to provide a form of salt for their cattle. 

Almost directly after leaving the caves, the northern end of 
the Kavirondo country is reached. This is for the most part 



Experiences in East Africa zzi 

treeless and without interest, very thickly populated, and the 
cultivation of matama, bananas and sweet potatoes is carried 
on to a very large extent. The Kavirondo own considerable 
numbers of cattle and sheep. 

Most of their villages in the North are surrounded by 
earthern walls and a ditch, and in some places by hedges of 
cacti and euphorbia. 

The Kavirondo are remarkable for the fact that their 
younger women wear absolutely no clothing, but while dis- 
pensing with clothing they do not despise personal adornment, 
and beads, iron wire, etc., are freely worn. A peculiar ornament 
is a grass tail tied round the waist generally by a string of 
beads. I believe that this is an emblem of marriage, and to 
touch one of these tails is a great breach of good manners, the 
offender being, I believe, liable to a fine of 5 goats. The men 
do not despise clothing, their chief pride seemingly being their 
head dress, generally made of basket work surmounted by 
numbers of beads, shells, and ostrich feathers. Smoking is a 
universal habit among men and women. They are very fair 
labourers for agricultural purposes, working for a low wage, and 
unlike many tribes, being willing to leave their own country 
for a year or more. 

One object which is sure to attract the attention of the 
traveller through Kavirondo, is the quail decoy, consisting of a 
pole fastened either vertically in the ground, or horizontally on 
two sticks from which are suspended numbers of conical-shaped 
wicker cages, each containing a quail, whose call attracts others 
who in turn are caught by snares set round the poles. 

South and South-west of the Mau Escarpment lies the Sotik 
and Lumba, both pre-eminently suitable for stock, and by far 
the finest cattle in the Protectorate come from the Sotik. The 
country of the South-west slopes of Mau, before the Sotik 
country proper is reached, is more unlike Africa than anything 
I have ever seen or heard of. It is a wooded country, at an 
elevation of somewhere between 7,000 and 8,000 ft., with large 
open clearings some thousands of acres in extent, and with belts 



112 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

of trees, generally on each side of clear streams. This country 
is very well watered, and is, I think, the finest grazing land for 
cattle in the country. 

One large clearing, practically in the forest, is worth a short 
description. To the extent of some thousand or two acres, sur- 
rounded on all sides by forests largely consisting of Cedar and 
Bamboo, the ground is practically covered with red and white 
everlastings, and in the early morning, when the ground is 
white with, apparently lime, it is as pretty a sight as one could 
wish for and one which I, at any rate, never expected to see in 
Africa. 

Grasses in this part of the country seem to be very different 
to those usually found, and resemble very closely those which 
one is accustomed to find in the grazing lands of Scotland. In 
this part of the country, even in the middle of the day, one does 
not look for a shady tree, but rather is inclined to sit in the 
sun for comfort. 

My sketch of East Africa, however incomplete, will be still 
more so without a few words on the Kikuyu country, between 
Nairobi and Fort Hall, and of this part I can only speak from 
hearsay. 

Land has been taken up in this direction to a very large 
extent, but apparently comparatively little has been done to- 
wards its development, and a railway between Nairobi and Fort 
Hall is very badly wanted. Labour in Kikuyu is cheap, plenti- 
ful but indifferent in quality, the price paid being from six to 
eight shillings a month including food. 

It would appear to be the country where the comparatively 
small farmer will do better than in other parts, owing chiefly to 
the number of streams, and I should imagine that the soil is 
more fitted for cultivation than for grazing. Coffee seems to do 
weU here, and many people are trying fibres, chiefly Ramie and 
Wild Banana. 

At and beyond Fort Hall, except on the hills of Eenia, the 
country falls away to lower levels, and here cotton is being 



Experiences in East Africa zz3 

grown, and will no doubt be produced in large quantities if 
railway facilities are forthcoming, and rates are sufficiently low. 

Northwards of Kenia, between Budolph and the Abyssinian 
border, little is known of the country ; the natives there possess 
considerable numbers of sheep and cattle. 

A word or two in conclusion on the country as a whole. It 
has, I think, a future, but is not by any means a country for a 
man to go to without capital, and the chief reason for this is 
not the country itself, but the system which obtains there. If 
a man could go straight on to his land on his arrival in the 
country, it would be a very different state of affairs, but owing 
to the country being practically unsurveyed, a man has to wait 
months before he gets his land, and as often as not, after he has 
spent some six months looking for land, living in hotels or even 
camps, he has not sufficient capital left to develop his land when 
he gets it. 

The country has many possibilities; it has no specialised 
industry and probably the best thing for a man to do who 
wishes to make money, and not only to provide himself with a 
permanent home in the country, is to take up land in the High- 
lands, where he and his family can live as they would in Europe, 
and also to take. up some land in the coast belt, where he can 
grow rubber and other valuable crops, which should bring him a 
handsome return. In this way he will be able to live in a 
healthy climate, and pay periodical visits of inspection to what 
will probably be his most valuable asset. 

There are many industries which could be carried on in the 
Highlands, one of the most promising and at the present time 
most profitable being Dairy farming, but settlers own com- 
paratively few cattle and the price of cows and their small yield! 
of milk, together with other risks, make it impossible at the 
present time for butter to be produced cheaply enough to com- 
pete with Australia and New Zealand. The breeding up of 
herds is always a slow process, and really the only chance that 
the majority of colonists have of stocking their farms is when 
the Government has had trouble with some tribe, and sells the 
cattle they confiscate. Pigs have been found to do remarkably 



XI4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

well, and the bacon industry would naturally go hand in hand 
with dairy farming. 

I do not think that the country will ever compete in cereals 
with Canada and America, etc., although there will always he a 
considerable local market; the export trade of the country as 
far as crops go wiU have to consist of more valuable products, 
and probably oil seeds, cofEee, black wattles, tobacco, fibres, 
cotton, bacon, butter,rubber and copra will be most extensively 
grown. It is only to the last of these, however, that capital will 
be attracted in the first instance, to any extent. 

It is a thousand pities that the land is in such a state of 
chaos, and I believe I am only quoting the words of Sir Charles 
Eliot, spoken at a lecture which was given either at the end of 
last year or the beginning of this, when he said that among the 
more senior officers of the Administration, there was no one 
conversant with land settlement of other colonies. 

If the Government wish to have the beautiful Highlands 
inhabited by a prosperous white population, it is absolutely 
essential that there should be an official to deal with the situa- 
tion who has had experience of white colonists, and it is satis- 
factory to note that in the recent appointment of a Land 
O&cer, the Government appear to be making an effort in this 
direction. 

To facilitate administration, it would probably be much 
better to amalgamate East Africa and Uganda ; many expenses 
would thus be saved. 

At present the country is crying out for capital for the 
development of the coast, railways, and a hundred and one 
things inseparable from all industries, without which practically 
no industry in the world can be carried on. 

I am firmly of the opinion that there is capital waiting to 
go into the country, if it can only find or force its way in, and I 
do not understand why it is made so difficult for capitalists 
to invest. 

The export trade, according to latest advices, has increased 
by over 1^ million rupees in a year, a total of nearly 5,000,000, 
or £300,000 roughly. 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 115 

WITH PEN AND CAMERA IN NIGERIA. \^ 
By R. Ehnest Hope (late of Lokoja). 

(Addressed to the Society in the Geogrpahical Hall, on Tuesday, 
April 16th, 1907.) 

To endeavour to compress into an evening's lecture a history of 
Nigeria, and to give an insight into that country, with its multi- 
farious customs and numerous races, means that much of 
interest must necessarily be omitted. I shall not, in the time at 
my disposal, be able to dwell long or go deeply into the many 
interesting episodes connected with the exploration of that vast 
protectorate. The story of Nigeria and its races commences 
about 850 B.C., when the Phoenecians from Tyre founded the 
city of Carthage. In 149 B.C., during the Roman conquest, this 
city was destroyed after a fearful siege. Some of these 
Carthaginians would then probably go southwards into the 
Soudan. Pliny, who was born at Verona in a.d. 23 tells us that 
after the siege of Carthage, the Romans journeyed through 
Tripoli to Lake Chad and the Niger. He calls the river the 
" Nigir." The present names " Niger " and " Nigeria " are 
merely European colloquialisms. Following the Carthaginians 
and Romans came the Arabs, four thousand invading Egypt in 
646. Mahommed had only been dead eight years, when these 
Arabs, imbued with religious enthusiasm, made their invasion. 
Thirty years previously, idolatry and immorality were rampant 
amongst the Arabs : Mahommed was unknown. What a change ! 
Then their mission would have been different. Now they in- 
culcated a new spiritual life. As Maxse says : " They intro- 
duced everywhere progressive methods of agriculture, commerce, 
trade and industry. These Arabs were no mere land-grabbers ' 
and plunderers; they set systematically to work to regenerate 
the country and henceforth identified their interests with it. 
They introduced the camel into Africa, instituted regular cara- 



/ zz6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

van routes across the continent and protected them," and to this 
day these caravan routes exist and are in daily use. Many a 
/ time have I watched the caravans come into Lokoja along this 

ancient road. So great had the caravan trade become that Sir 
Frederick Lugard thought it a good means of increasing the 
revenue of Northern Nigeria. He therefore instituted the cara- 
van tax. The tax was charged on the assessed value of the 
caravan — the assessors being the government's Sierra Leone 
clerks, who took advantage of their position and subjected the 
tax to great abuse. After Sir Frederick Lugard's resignation 
last year the tax was repealed. In the ninth century, the Arabs 
crossed from Tripoli to the western bend of the Niger, and in 
the tenth century were producing maps of the south of the 
Sahara. To these Arab travellers we owe our first information 
about the Niger. The glowing accounts which they brought 
back of a great inland sea and of the fabulous wealth of Tim- 
buctoo, so whetted the exploring appetites of the Portuguese, 
that a chartered company was formed to investigate this wonder- 
ful sea. The inland sea was said to flow due west from what is 
now known as Lake Chad and to enter the Atlantic at Senegal. 
In H44 the Portuguese ships reached the mouth of the Senegal 
and sailed up for fifty miles. They returned from this first 
venture with a cargo of slaves. This was the commencement of 
the slave trade which lasted for four centuries. In the seven- 
teenth century a British company was formed to explore the 
Gambia. The first man sent out — Richard Thompson — was 
murdered by the Portuguese: this was in 1618. Richard 
Jobson succeeded him and managed to explore 800 miles of the 
Gambia, and got home safely. His information about the 
golden city of Timbuctoo, he told to the Merchant Adventurers' 
Company. Many lives were lost by the company in endeavour- 
ing to explore that part of Africa. So little headway was 
being made that the company abandoned its explorations. For 
over a hundred years British enterprise ceased. The 
French took up the matter, and were instrumental in proving 
that the Gambia and Senegal were independent of the Niger. 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 117 

This was confirmed in 1723 by Captain Stibba, who was explor- 
ing on behalf of a British Company. At home the interest in 
the Niger was increasing yearly. Geographers were keen to 
know the course of the river — ^whence did it comeP whither did 
it go? With a view to solving the problem — a problem which 
had perplexed students for centuries — The African Association 
was formed in 1778 by a number of prominent men interested 
in African exploration. Sir Joseph Banks was the head of the 
Association. In 1780 Homiman was sent out. He started from 
Tripoli but only reached the Nupe country when he succumbed 
to the climate. Houghton followed, reaching the Upper JN'iger 
from Gambia. He was murdered by Moors and Arabs. Sir 
Joseph Banks' choice now fell on Mungo Park, a young 
Scotsman born at Selkirk, who was apprenticed to Dr. Anderson, 
of that town. Mungo Park left England in 1795, being then 
25 years of age. Entering by the Gambia, he was not long 
before he got his first baptism of fever. During his illness he 
set to work to master the Mandingo language, and study the 
customs and beliefs of the natives. He received great assistance 
in his studies from his two faithful servants — Johnson and 
Demba — provided for him by Dr. Laidley, of Fisania. 

Though in a tropical country, Park did not abandon his. 
eighteenth century dress. His close-fitting trousers and coat 
were considered vulgar by the Moors, who said that the human 
form should be revealed as little as possible. 

Once Park was robbed of all his clothes and left to die. One 
of the Moors, taking compassion on him, threw him back his 
coat, trousers and hat. The hat was more valuable to Park 
than the Moors imagined, for inside the lining thereof were his 
precious notes. On another occasion he was given some raw 
eggs to eat to prove that he was a Christian, as all Christians 
were supposed to be able to eat raw eggs. Much as he liked 
eggs, he could not eat them raw. This gained him the respect 
of the Mallam. Park was allowed to go on his way rejoicing. 
The natives do not eat eggs, as they consider it very wasteful 
when chickens can be produced from them. Not being judges 



zx8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

of eggs they do not mind in what condition the eggs are when 
thej sell them to the Europeans. It is all the same to them 
whether the eggs are a day, a week, or a month old. 

Continuing his journey^ Park expected soon to reach Tim- 
buetoo. He got within a hundred miles of the place when the 
King of Silla stopped him. He wanted to know what present 
Park had brought him. The few presents he had brought into 
the country had long ago disappeared, whilst even half the 
buttons from his coat had been distributed. He had therefore 
not much left to offer. You can imagine Park not caring to 
offer brass buttons to the King ! He was prepared to leave the 
King his coat as a gift for permission to proceed, but the King 
was obdurate. 

Being thoroughly worn out and alone — his servants having 
all deserted him, whilst even his faithful steed had been left 
behind at a village in a dying condition — he decided to return 
to England. Passing through the village on his return, he was 
delighted to learn that his horse was quite well again. The 
animal readily recognized him, and showed its recognition by 
neighing for some time — ^a thing it had not done since its re- 
covery. The horse was a great solace to Park on his way to the 
coast in this time of despair. He reached England on the 22nd 
December, 1797, after an absence of two years and nine months. 
He retired to Selkirk, having married the daughter of Dr. 
Anderson, his former employer, but settle down for long he 
could not. Africa was calling him. In January 1806, he again 
started out ; this time at the head of an expedition fitted out by 
the British government. Seven months after, only seven out of 
the forty Europeans composing the expedition, had survived 
the trying ordeal. The seven pushed on, navigating more 
than a thousand miles of the Niger in a boat built by Park. At 
the Bussa rapids, misfortune overtook the few remaining ones: 
their boat ran on the rocks. The natives, not knowing what 
they were wanting, and no doubt afraid at seeing a white man, 
shot at them with arrows. Seeing the hopelessness of the situa- 
tion. Park and his companions jumped into the river and were 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 1x9 

drowned. A sorrowful ending to so daring a spirit. Of the 
native crew, only one boatman survived. 

So far it had only been settled that this great river took a 
south-westerly bend after leaving Timbuetoo. Where it entered 
the sea was still a mystery. Park had supported the belief that 
it joined the Congo. To reach the Niger from the west coast 
seemed impossible. Expedition after expedition met with dis- 
aster. The Government next sent an expedition up the Congo 
to attempt to discover something about the Niger from there. 
The expedition turned out a complete failure. The next 
attempt was from Tripoli in 1821 — fifteen years after Park's 
death — ^by Clapperton, Lander, Barth, Denham and others. 
They utilised the trade routes as much as possible in crossing 
the desert. This expedition was a great success. In February 
they beheld the gleaming waters of Lake Chad. 

On reaching Sokoto, the Sultan refused to allow them to 
proceed further, so they returned to England, reaching home 
in 1825. 

Clapperton and Lander were not long before they were again 
organising an expedition. Next time they entered the Gulf of 
Benin, passed through the Toruba country, and joined the 
Niger at Bussa. Proceeding north they again reached Sokoto. 
Here Clapperton died. Lander, much broken in spirit through 
the death of his faithful companion, returned to England. 

In 1830, Richard Lander, joined by his brother John, again 
started out. They landed at Badagfy and passed through the 
Toruba country to Bussa, as Clapperton had done before. 
Thence they descended the Niger and came out at Brass. Thus 
in 1830, twenty-four years after the death of Park, were his 
explorations completed, and the great problem of the Niger out- 
flow solved. The three thousand miles from source to mouth 
had at last been traversed. 

From 1832 to 1861, Macgregor Laird was the moving spirit 
in opening up the trade of the Niger. He was assisted in a 
luke-warm fashion by the British Government. In 1856, Dr. 
Baikie was appointed his Britannic Majesty's consul at Lokoja. 



X20 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

He was an excellent man for the post, encouraging trade. Un- 
fortunately his health failed; he was obliged to leave the 
country in 1864. In 1868, after six representatives had been at 
Lokoja in succession, the British Government decided to 
abandon the post. The French and German now stepped in, 
and as Sir Harry Johnson says : *' Their intention nearly ended 
in the Niger becoming a French river with a German estuary." 

Our retention of the Niger was simply due to British traders 
sticking to their posts. In 1877, Sir George Goldie came upon 
the scene, and to him alone do we owe the possession of Nigeria 
at the present day. His sojourn there is a long story full of 
interesting experiences and thrilling incidents. It is hoped 
that some day he will be persuaded to commit his experiences 
to paper. The book would be of absorbing interest to many. 
No one could tell the inner history of the country as he could. 
Many an interesting chat have I had with an old black man named 
*' Shufli " at Burutu on his experiences during the early days of 
the Niger Company. Goldie commenced by amalgamating the 
trading companies into one company, calling it the National 
African Company. At the Berlin conference of 1885, a charter, 
acknowledging the British sphere of influence, was granted to 
this Company. The charter left the great Hausa state open to 
all powers to come and take their slice. This did not suit 
Goldie. He immediately set about making treaties with all the 
chiefs of Hausa land. 

Patriotism, as understood in England, does not exist 
amongst the African races. So long as their customs and mode 
of government are respected they are satisfied. Goldie willingly 
gave that undertaking in making the treaties with the chiefs. 
In 1886 the name of the National African Company was 
changed to that of the Royal Niger Company. In 1888, after 
the lapse of twenty years, the British Government were again 
represented at Lokoja. 

The treaties were, on the whole well kept. The only real 
trouble being with the Emir of Nupe. He wanted the Emir of 
lUorin and the King of Bussa to join with him in driving the 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria Z2i 

English out. The King of Bussa, with true loyalty, informed 
Sir George Goldie of the Emir of Jfupe's intention. 

A secret expedition was got together at Lokoja. Thirty 
British officers in charge of 513 Hausa and Yoruba soldiers 
started from Lokoja on the 6th January, 1897, with Beda, the 
capital of Nup^, a town of from seventy to one hundred thou- 
sand inhabitants, as their objective. News had come to 
Lokoja that the enemy were marching on to Kabba to attack 
Lokoja. Right at the commencement, the mere handful of 
men had to divide — half going over land through Kabba and 
half up the river. Luckily the enemy had taken fright and 
were on their way back to Beda, when the troops reached Kabba. 
The forces joined the main body at Egbohn without having 
encountered the enemy. The united forces now marched on to 
Beda. The crucial moment had arrived of putting the Hausa 
soldiers to the test. Would they remain loyal? 

After thirty-six hours stiff fighting. Sir George Goldie was 
master of the situation. Fulani rule was at an end. Five 
hundred and thirteen untried Hausa soldiers, with thirty British 
officers pitched against seventy thousand men. What a victory ! 
The total losses on the British side were one officer and seven 
men killed, nine men wounded. 

It is most singular that the natives have never made any use 
of the river power. It is looked upon by them as a hindrance 
rather than a convenience. 

With a small and successful expedition against Illorin, 
Goldie began to see his way clear to that peaceful united Nigeria 
which he had made his goal. 

In less than twenty years over five hundred treaties had been 
made with African chiefs, so that in 1898 the soldier statesman. 
Sir George Taubman Goldie, had the unparalleled and proud 
distinction of being able to hand over to the British Government 
about 370,000 square miles of territory, containing at an estimate 
25,000,000 people. 

Such then is a very brief history of the country from which 
I returned three months ago. 



122 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

As you had the pleasure, two years ago, of hearing a lecture 
on Calabar, I do not propose, more than briefly to touch upon 
that parf of Nigeria in this lecture. The passage out had been 
a very rough one. We arrived in the Calabar river, three days 
late, on the 25th December. We had the misfortune to ground 
on a sand bank, and as we had missed the tide it was a case of 
waiting for the next tide to float us. Having thus spent my 
first Christmas day in Africa on a sand bank, I landed at 
Calabar the next morning. The town was looking at its best, 
being decorated with flags and festoons for the annual regatta 
and sports which were to be held that day. The regatta and 
sports are arranged by the trading companies established in the 
Oil Rivers. The natives entcir into the different events with 
great enthusiasm. When a favourite gang wins a gig race or 
a tug of war the cheering is simply deafening. An English 
football crowd is bad enough, but in an African crowd every man, 
almost, of a favourite side, shouts himself hoarse. Leaving the 
sports ground, which was at the German Company's factory on 
the opposite bank of the river from Calabar, we crossed in a gig 
to Duketown; the native town of Calabar. After my friends 
had perused their mail, a stroll through the town was proposed. 
I found that the majority of the streets had been named as in 
an English town ; the names, I learnt, were in the Efic language. 
The streets were kept in very good condition, whilst guUeys were 
being constructed down the side of many of them. Open guUeys 
are necessary to carry away the heavy downfalls of rain. The 
houses or huts are built in groups, about half a dozen being 
erected around a large open court. The court is used by the 
inhabitants of the huts as a place to dine in. They will also 
meet there in the evenings to play their games such as 
draughts and a kind of chess. The population of Duketown 
is divided into households, each household being ruled 
by a chief. Over all a native king and queen rule. 
Members of the different households cannot leave one and 
join another household. They are the servants of the chief 
of that household. A child born into a household remains 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 123 

a member of it. All the Calabar people are to this extent slaves, 
but it is a form of slavery to wbicb very few can have any 
objection. The different members of a houisehold are really co- 
partners in the estate. At the death of a chief all the pro- 
perty is left to the household. A new chief is appointed to 
look after the estate and household. When a man or woman 
becomes unfit for work, I am told that he or she is allowed to 
remain in the household, sitting down at the festive board with 
the rest for his or her meals. There are no workhouses in the 
Calabar district, nor do I recollect seeing any man or woman 
hegging. 

A few years ago a very powerful society was in existence 
amongst the Calabar or Efic people, called the Egbo society. 
(The majority of the Efic people were members.) The principals 
of the society lived in the bush. At different times of the year 
they would hold plays in the native town. At the appointed 
time the Egbo men came out from the bush dressed in the most 
grotesque manner imaginable, their faces covered with some 
hideous mask. The rest of their bodies, including hands and 
feet, was enshrouded in a sack-like dress. Their identity was 
never known. Dancing and fencing would go on for hours. At 
the close of the day they would return to the bush enriched by 
a handsome collection. The evening would be given up to 
drinking. The drink consumed would be chiefly native beer 
made from the sap of the palm tree. The sap is extracted from 
the tree in a very ingenious manner. A fire is lighted at the 
top of a tree. The fire draws up the sap which is then con- 
ducted into a calabash fastened to the tree. This palm wine is 
delightful to drink when fresh, but when allowed to stand for 
two or three days it becomes an intoxicating drink. In this 
stale condition the natives prefer it. 

So powerful did the Egbo society become that it was a 
menace rather than an assistance to good government. The 
chiefs of the society had it within their power to ruin any man 
who fell foul of the order of Egbo. The chief would call a 
special assembly of Egbo. Runners would parade the street 



124 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

and finish up by blowing Egbo at the front door of the party 
threatened. After the trumpet had been blown three times, no 
man or woman dare have any intercourse whatever with the per- 
son so treated for fear of being similarly dealt with. 

The Government had eventually to break up the order. 
Their quaint plays and pastoral pictures are now no longer seen 
in Calabar. Leaving the town which is at the foot of the 
Government Hill, I was taken over the hill. On it are all the 
bungalows and offices. The Presbyterian mission also has its 
quarters there. Each bungalow stands in its own grounds. 
The grass and walks of all are kept in good condition by the 
prisoners, who go round doing the scavenging work. The varie- 
gated bush is a fitting background to the bungalows and 
gardens. Walks in the bush are delightful. Standing over 
two hundred feet above sea level the ground is dry and sandy, 
the bush is not a high one, whilst the paths are well defined. 
Before leaving Calabar I should just like to mention that the 
great pleasure of a bush walk is in being able to get something 
to drink whilst in the bush. Milk from the newly-pulled cocoa- 
nut is too good to describe, whilst the fresh palm wine is 
delightful. In addition there are oranges and bananas with 
which to refresh the traveller. Leaving Calabar I joined the 
homeward-bound steamer in the Calabar river. She threaded 
her way through some of the grandest scenery on the west coast, 
and in a few hours' time again reached the sea. Turning west- 
wards, Forcados was reached in the course of two days' time. 
Having no cargo to leave at or take from Forcados, the boat does 
not cross the bar, but drops anchor outside and awaits the 
arrival of the branch boat to take the passengers in. The dis- 
charging of the human freight is not accomplished with the 
same ease in the turbulent sea as in the tranquil river. The 
branch boat having arrived, drops anchor at a distance suffi- 
ciently far to prevent any collision, should the boats swing to- 
wards each other. To come alongside is impossible. Surf boats 
are lowered. These boats are specially constructed, being very 
strongly built and flat bottomed, so as to be able to battle with 



With Pen and Camera in Nisreria 125 

the surf of the African ports. The luggage having been lowered 
into the surf boat in slings, and conveyed to the branch boat, 
preparations are made for the departure of the passengers. A 
palm oil cask, the upper portion of which has been cut away, is 
fastened to the ropes of the crane. Instead of a palm oil cask 
some boats use a Madeira chair roped round to hold it together, 
whilst others build a kind of wooden swing with seating accom- 
modation for two. The coast name for these articles of ship 
furniture is "Mammy chair." The black men leave the ship by 
means of the rope or rope ladder, and some Europeans prefer 
that means of egress to being tossed in the mammy chair. The 
passengers step inside and sit down on the boards fastened to 
the side of the barrel which serve as a seat. With instructions 
to the black winchman to " heave away softly," we are raised 
off the ship's deck and the next minute find ourselves 
dangling over the side. The passengers are told by the mate 
to hold tight to the rope, though that warning is rarely needed. 
With a " steady, steady," and a " let go," we are dumped into 
the surf boat below. Scrambling out of the cask has to be done 
as gracefully as a rocking boat will allow. The black boys in 
the boat render every assistance. In the excitement of the 
moment the fact that we are standing in water, or that the little 
luggage is floating about the boat is hardly noticed. Having 
waved our good-byes to the Captain, the crossing to the branch 
boat commences. This may take a quarter or three-quarters of 
an hour, according to the roughness of the sea. At the branch 
boat, operations are reversed. The passengers are now hoisted 
up from the surf boat to the deck of the branch boat. They are 
glad to get on board, and no doubt not surprised to find that 
their luggage is as wet as themselves. Troubles are not yet at 
an end. There is an hour's run before anchoring safely inside 
Forcados harbour. The branch boats are designed specially for 
bar service. They are of shallow draught, and of small tonnage. 
Forcados is not a large place. The native population is small 
and the trade of no moment. The few bungalows along the 
beach are connected with the customs and post office. Those in 



126 Journal of the Manchester Geognq>hical Society 

the back ground are the residences of the European officials and 
the Government's European doctor. After the mails have been 
left at the post office and the ship's papers passed b j the customs 
officials, the boat proceeds up the Forcados river to Burutu, 
passing on her way the '^ Sir Alfred " dry dock, a dock used for 
repairing boats connected with the steamship company. Arriv- 
ing at Burutu I found it a little hive of industry. Engineers' 
shops, a slip-way for river boats, a bank, European bungalows, 
a hospital, cargo stores, wharves, and a shop are all seen in 
quick succession. Passing these, the Government wharf is 
reached. Here the boat goes alongside. The Government's 
river boat comes abreast of her to take ofE the passengers and 
mails for ports on the Niger river. It was here, amidst the 
clang of the engineers' hammers, the screech of the ship's 
syrens, and the rattle of the numerous winches that I passed 
many happy days. Burutu is the great port of the Niger; 
produce from up the river being brought down for shipment to 
Liverpool, or Hamburg, whilst goods are left there for con- 
veyance by the river boats to the ports of the Niger. 

There are one or two good bush walks in Burutu, but the 
great pleasure of the bush is in being able to watch the gambols 
of the monkeys. They have very acute hearing. At the least 
sound they are on the alert. If danger is espied by one of 
them, word seems to be passed round. A few deep grunts, a 
squeak or two, and not a monkey is to be seen. Beside the 
monkeys, the bush abounds in parrots. To the sportsman an 
afternoon's pleasure is assured. The parrot proves excellent 
fare. In taste, it is something like a pigeon. 

I was not long in Burutu before the chief of the Jakrie tribe 
called on me. He is a sturdy old man. His village of about 
thirty people, including his five wives, is a little further up the 
river. On going up the river one day on a shooting expedition 
with other Europeans, we called on the chief. (See Figure I.) 
Amongst the native huts he had built a wooden house for the 
reception of European visitors, so he told us. It was crudely 
fitted up, whilst the walls were decorated with all the advert 



With Pen and Camera In Nigeria 



127 



tising cards which he could gather from the shops in the 
locality. Befreshments were quickly brought out. One of his 
daughters acted the part of hostess exceedingly well. I had 
many a chat with this old African chief about the jujus. All 
the tribes have a great belief in juju spirits, and charms. There 
are good spirits and bad spirits, whilst in the bush there are 
men specially endowed by the juju spirit with supernatural 
powers. 




Fig. 1. "Jakrie Chief and Family." 

I learnt that the head or king of the spirits would send a 
good spirit to watch over the villages or a bad spirit to bring 
sickness and death according as the people were good or bad 
towards the jujus. A thief, living in a village, would result in a 
bad spirit being sent to the village to drive away the evil person. 
If sickness continued in the village a juju man would be called 
in from the bush to enquire into the matter. Some ceremony 
would be gone through, and a poor unfortunate person would 



128 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

be picked as the one causing all the trouble. He or she 
would have to leave the village. At the entrance to the village 
there are roughly constructed tables. On the top of one I saw 
a broken gin bottle, together with some yams (native potato), 
whilst in front hung a piece of coloured cloth. In the village 
were tables of more elaborate construction, being often built 
with mud and surrounded with mud walls. Outside the door of 
the chief's house, calabashes and wooden vases were hung up, 
whilst in the entrance further strange objects were to be seen 
hanging. All were covered with dust, as though they had been 
there for some time untouched. I was on the point of examin- 
ing one of them when I was stopped. I asked the chief what 
they were. He told me they were juju houses. "Juju houses?" 
said I. " Yes," he said. He went on to tell me that when the 
Juju spirit came to the village he must have a house wherein to 
sleep. He would be angry were no house provided for him, and 
on his return would send his bad spirit. Asking how the spirit 
could get into the wooden bottle, for instance, the chief showed 
me a slit in its side. " He goes in here," he said. I was getting 
curious. I asked what all the tables around the village were 
for. He told me that food was placed on the table for the juju 
spirits. The juju had to be fed like ordinary people. So far I 
understood, but I could not see how the spirit could have eaten 
the food when it could be seen day after day on the table, 
apparently untouched. The chief insisted that the spirit had 
taken what it wanted of the food. What was left was the shell, 
as it were. He illustrated it in a very telling way. " Take for 
instance," he said^ " the death of one of your white men. You 
look at the man and say that he is dead, but he is there. He is 
just the same as when he is sleeping. There is a something 
gone out of him, though. It is just the same with the food 
given to the juju spirit." The soul of the food has been eaten 
and only the outside casing left. My logic failed me. On 
another occasion he actually told me that the white people had 
juju spirits. He said he had seen pictures of them. He had 
seen illustrations of mermaids. 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 129 

Leaving Burutu and my Jakrie friend, I joined one of the 
river boats for Lokoja in Northern Nigeria. The ship was 
manned by black people, the only Europeans being the Captain 
and the Chief Engineer. Awakening next morning, I found 
myself in the land of palms, the mangrove trees having been 
left far behind. The lower Niger abounds in banana and oil 
palms. There is also a number of cocoanut trees. In the fore- 
ground I noticed numerous yam plantations, whilst here and 
there I observed the pine apple growing. The yam is the 
native potato. It is an excellent substitute for the potato. 
It takes various shapes. In the lower Niger it grows into shape 
something like the Swedish turnip, whilst further up the river it 
takes the shape of a melon. Some are thicker and some much 
thinner than the average melon. They grow underground like 
the potato. The yam shrub takes more of the form of a tree 
rising to a height of over six feet. The bananas are not as good 
as the ones we are used to in England. They seem to ripen 
quickly and are far too sweet to be pleasant. The pine apple is 
very poor. It has little juice and is very fibrous. 

The native has several ways of preparing the yam. One is 
to boil it like the potato, after peeling it. When nearly cooked, 
it is put into an iron pot with some palm oil, ground nuts, 
red pepper and a chicken. (African chickens are very small and 
have not much flesh on them). The whole is boiled for some 
time. This " Palm oil chop " is a favourite dish with the 
natives. Many Europeans are also very fond of it. Another 
method is to boil the yam until it is soft, then beat it in a 
wooden mortar to a pulp. The result is something like mashed 
potato. In this form I greatly enjoyed it. It is known as 
foofoo. 

The lower part of Southern Nigeria is noted for its oil. The 
network of river is known as the oil rivers. The palm nuts are 
gathered in the bush by the natives ; the husks are removed from 
the kernels and beaten in a trough in order to extract the oil. 
The liquid is then purified by boiling. The purified oil is 
placed in casks and sold to the European trader who ships it to 



130 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

England or Hamburg. The kernels of tlie palm nuts are too 
hard for native treatment, so are put up in separate bags for 
shipment to Europe as " kernels." 

Along the banks of the Niger, small villages are to be seen 
at frequent intervals. From out of them boys came in canoes 
calling allay ! allay ! allay ! I learnt that they were asking for 
the empty tins. A few empty ones were thrown into the water 
for the boys to dive after. All the African tribes living on the 
water side are expert swimmers. 

Leaving the Jakrie country behind, the Ejaw country is 
entered. (The different tribes speak of their particular district 
as their country). The E jaws' huts are constructed chiefly with 
bamboo and wood with mud plastered on the inside in order to 
keep the rain out. The outside has the appearance of an 
English ceiling seen from above before the floor of the room has 
been put on. A few of the huts would be plastered on the out- 
side as well. In Assay village (Ejaw) some of the women were 
busy making fishing nets, whilst others were engaged in pre- 
paring the evening meal. Many of the girls had heavy bands 
of ivory around their ankles and wrists. They seemed to serve 
the same purpose as the bracelets of our English girls. As 
it was the dry season the river was very low, many sand banks 
being visible. On a number of these, fishermen had pitched 
their grass huts. I could not help thinking of them as Arabs in 
the desert resting by the wayside. Pitched on the golden sand 
in the middle of the river, they looked most picturesque. At 
Onitsha, where the first station on the Niger connected with the 
British Cotton Growing Association is, a pilot was taken on 
board to navigate the ship to Lokoja. The white captain gives 
place to the black pilot. The pilot is a native of Lokoja and a 
Mahommedan. He has lived on the river all his life. He 
knows every nook and corner and is able to pick out the course 
quite easily without the aid of any chart or diagram. In fact a 
chart would be of no service in the Niger with its continually 
changing sand banks. By simply watching the ripple on the 
surface of the water a pilot is able to steer a good course. 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 131 

Except on a very briglit moonlight night, the anchor is dropped 
at dusk. Even on a moonlight night there is a great risk of 
striking one of the innumerable " snags." I soon found out 
that the natives were possessed of wonderful seeing powers. As 
I was on the look out for alligators, the pilot seeing my 
sporting intentions, pointed out some to me, which he said 
were basking in the sun on a sand bank ahead. I looked in the 
direction he was pointing, but could see nothing. I thought 
he was mistaken. He was so positive though, that I fired in 
that direction. An alligator, awakened from its slumbers, 
slipped into the water. There are large numbers of hippo- 
potami and alligators in the lower Niger. The dry season is 
the best time for sport as the innumerable sand banks are 
their favourite basking grounds during the heat of the day. 
The Sobo and Jakrie tribes will not eat alligator flesh, but the 
Hausas look upon it as an excellent food. 

The country became more hilly as we proceeded until, as we 
approached Lokoja, hills seemed to be everywhere. It was a most 
welcome change after the mangroves of Burutu and district. 
Whilst the rocks are pleasant to look upon, they are far from 
pleasant when half hidden under the water. The boat had only 
the misfortune to ground once. That was just as night was 
coming on. She was floated in about half an hour and the 
anchor was dropped for the night. Next day I reached Lokoja, 
having been five days in travelling three hundred miles. (See 
Figure 2.) The hospital was the first building to come into 
view, having a commanding position on the top of a small hill, 
overlooking the river. The boat was quickly alongside the 
beach, and before many minutes the cargo was being discharged. 
I had been fortunate in having a good boy with me as servant, 
for he had provided me with an excellent variety of food on the 
way. (On the river boats each man has to provide his own 
food and bed. All that is provided is a room wherein to sleep.) 
My luggage gave me no trouble. The boy saw to everything 
being taken up to my new quarters. I merely had to speak to 
the white man on the beach for some labourers ta carry the 
boxes. 



I 



132 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Lokoja is the natural capital of Northern Nigeria, being 
situated at the junction of the two important rivers of Nigeria 
— the Niger and the Benue. Mount Patti stands well as a back- 
ground to the town. The bungalows are surrounded by taste- 
fully laid-out grounds. The Hausas are the predominating 
race. Their origin is unknown. Some writers incline to the 
belief that they came originally from the East of Mecca and 
settled down to the north of Eano; others that they are in- 




Fig. 2. " Lokoja— The Beach." 

digenous to the Sahara. Mary Kingsley says : " The Sahara 
may have oases, valleys, enclosed plains where man can live, as 
it were, on islands in the sand seas." Whether they came from 
Mecca to Kano, or are indigenous to the Sahara, they were un- 
doubtedly driven southwards during the invasion of the Phcene- 
cians and Romans. The looms and dye-pits of the Hausas are 
well known. (See Figure 3). They have proved good soldiers 
but naturally they are traders. As commercials they would be 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 



133 



excellent. They would walk for days selling their wares. 
Before two or three minutes have elapsed, the pedlar has spread 
his goods in front of the prospective customer. He invariably 
asks three or four times the market price for his goods and so 
has an ample margin for making reductions. They are a 
cheerful, happy-go-lucky lot, good tempered, and brimful of 




Fig. 3. Hausa Loom." 

fun. They seem quite indifferent to danger, and never meet 
troubles half-way. They are excellent horsemen, riding their 
Arab steeds bareback in the most reckless fashion. The strength 
of some of them is wonderful. The carrying of a field gun for 
some distance is a common thing in the Government expeditions. 



134 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

By carrying everything above the waist line, either on the head 
or on the upraised hand, they attain a remarkably erect carriage. 
The Hausas paint around their eyes with antimony, saying that 
it improves their seeing power. They are much heavier 
built than are the Jakries, whilst the women have certainly 
much more flesh than have Jakrie women. This superabundance 
of flesh is a sign of beauty amongst the Hausa women. They look 
upon the Jakrie women as having no beauty. As a Hausa said to 
me : " Dem Jakrie mammy no good, no catch plenty fat." The 
Hausas are excellent wrestlers as I one day found out. They 
wrestle in the catch-as-catch-can style. My only recollection of 
the wrestle was a heavy fall and then being told that I had lost. 
When a man has been thrown he has been defeated. There is 
no further trouble of putting the shoulders square on the 
ground. Try as I would, I could not throw my opponent. 

The Hausas have several musical instruments. One is like 
the guitar ; another takes the form of the Scotch bagpipes ; an- 
other is a reed instrument, known as a piano, whilst a third is a 
kind of bow from which a splendid scale of notes is obtained. 
They have also a full range of drums known as tomtoms : from 
the war-drum down to the small drum which is used at all 
festivities. The wonderful code of signals which they have in 
connection with the war-drum has been exemplified on more 
than one occasion. The most remarkable use of the drum was 
in connection with the Benin massacres of 1898. On that occa- 
sion, the massacres were known in Lagos several hours before 
the official news came over the wires; it had been transmitted 
by means of the tomtom. When I was at Burutu, news was 
continually arriving of the progress of events in the Benin 
districts, where a small rising had taken place, to be confirmed 
later by wire. The disturbances in Northern Nigeria were in- 
timated in a similar manner to the natives. At the sound of 
the war drum, every native is on the alert. As the message is 
read it is transmitted to the next village and so on from place 
to place. The natives have wonderful hearing. I have seen 
natives approaching, commence to talk and continue talking for 



With Pen and Camera in Nisreria 



135 



a long time after they had passed each other. They do not 
trouble to turn round or stop but talk as they walk. On one 
occasion the distance separating two natives on a straight road 
must have been considerably over a quarter of a mile. It must 
be remembered that the atmosphere in Nigeria is very clear and 
so aids the transmission of sound. It was quite a common 
thing to be able to see hills distinctly from twenty to thirty 
miles away. Natives rarely walk abreast of each other. Two 
natives might be engrossed in the most interesting conversation 




Fig. 4. "Lokoja — ^Road showing narrow winding track." 

but they would most probably walk one behind the other. As a 
consequence of this, narrow winding tracks are to be seen on 
all the roads. (See Figure 4.) On no occasion have I seen 
the tracks straight for more than two or three yards. The 
natives have not the slightest idea of parallel lines. It used to 
be amusing to ask a boy to put a picture straight on the wall of 
the house. (All servants are known as boys whatever their age. 
In Northern Nigeria, old men are known as Babas, which is a 



236 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Hausa word signifying, old.) Try as the boy would, lie could 
not manage it. It becomes a case of " a little more, more, stop." 

Before the Beda expedition, the Hausas were under the rule 
of the Fulani, who in Northern Nigeria are probably as 
numerous as the Hausas. For over three hundred years after 
the advent of Mahommed the Fulani remained a pagan race. 
In 1802, between the first and second of Park's explorations, 
they threw over paganism and embraced Mahommedanism. 
This change had far-reaching consequences, founding as it did, 
an Islam Empire from Chad to Senegal. The Fulani are said 
to have originated in Asia, having invaded Egypt somewhere 
about two thousand B.C. The Egyptians struggled hard to 
repulse them but without success. With their hump-backed 
cattle and their Roman-nosed sheep, they settled in different 
centres of Africa. To this day their cattle and sheep flourish 
in Nigeria. By abstaining from intermarriage with the other 
African races, the Fulani have maintained the purity of their 
race. The features remain of an Eastern type, being clear cut 
and well developed, the nose especially being straight and 
sharp, in striking contrast to the broad flat noses of the rest of 
the African races. They are a tall race of people, of excellent 
carriage with perhaps a tendency to haughtiness. They are 
very clean and invariably well dressed. They consider them- 
selves far superior to the Hausa race. The language seems to 
be distinct from that spoken by the Hausas. 

Lokoja was all excitement when we arrived, owing to the 
recent risings in the Bauchi country. Some European officers, 
on their way home on leave, had been recalled at Lagos and sent 
up the Niger on a special boat. Preparations were now being 
made for an expedition against the Munchi people. News had 
been brought down of the massacre of Hausa and Sierra Leone 
traders. A trading company's store at Abinsi had been looted 
and burnt. After the lapse of a week, six hundred canoes had 
been got together with the necessary carriers. A handful of 
soldieis started on their five days' journey up the Benue to the 
scene of the outrage. Just as the forces reached the spot, news 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 137 

came from home that the expedition had not to be proceeded 
with; further particulars being first required. In the mean- 
time tTie Munchis had carried everything of value to ttem into 
the bush, but our soldiers could not follow them. During the 
wait, a more severe rising took place in the Sokoto province. 
Most alarming rumours came to hand in connection with the 
town of Sokoto. The High Commissioner wired home for some 
additional guns, and also asked for re-enforcements from 
Southern Nigeria. Columns were drafted from Abinsi across 
the country to Sokoto. It was said that a new Mahdi had come 
from the Sahara and was leading the men under their green 
religious flag. The expulsion of all the Europeans was said to 
be their intention. Luckily the Mahdi was killed in the first 
encounter. This disheartened the Mahommedans. The town 
of Sokoto was relieved with little loss. Major Burdon, the 
British resident, was much shattered in health, and had to leave 
for home shortly aftei*wards. I had the pleasure of discussing 
the affair with him in Lokoja when he was passing through on 
his way home. He did not look upon the matter seriously. It 
was more the work of fanatics than that of sane men. On the 
whole they were contented with the method of Government, and 
had only been led away by the new Mahdi. With the quelling 
of a small rising at Kano, where the Emir had been causing 
trouble for some time, the country again settled down. The 
Emir was taken prisoner, sent down to Burutu, and after re- 
maining there a few months was brought to Lokoja, where he is 
now living in exile. 

Walking through the town of Lokoja on the evening pre- 
ceding the great Rammadan feast, I was puzzled to understand 
why a large number of people were looking in a certain direc- 
tion. I could see nothing to necessitate this gazing. Asking 
one of them the reason, I was told that they were looking for 
the moon. At the appearance of the new moon, the month's 
fast ends and feasting begins. The day was a particularly 
cloudy one, rendering a sight of the moon impossible until 
the sun had been set for some little time. The Mallam 



ijS Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

at the mosque assured the populace that the mcM)n had been 
seen and that feasting and merriment could commence. Early 
next day the feast of Rammadan was held. The Mahommedans 
first assembled in a natural amphitheatre at Kakunda, a little 
outside Lokoja. Prayers of thanksgiTing were offered up to 
Allah. At the close of the service they returned for a final 
service in the mosque at Lokoja. The rest of the day was given 
over to eating, drinking, and merriment. Passing one of the 
native compounds my attention was attracted by loud cheering 
coming from the inside. In the compound, a cow was held 
captive by means of two ropes — one fastened around a hind leg 
and one around the neck. Some game seemed to be in progress. 
I had my camera with me and was about to take a photograph 
of the cow, when some of the women, who were responsible for 
the play, stopped me. I could take a photograph but I must 
pay. This I readily promised to do, having had previous ex- 
perience. Asking the price, I was told one pound. Being in a 
generous mood I offered to pay two pounds. Even with the 
consent of the women my troubles were not at an end, for just 
as I was taking the photograph, the cow objected. The sight of 
the camera and cloth evidently frightened it. The play seemed 
to be a kind of one-man show. A man with only a loin cloth 
on, who was said to come from the bush, and who had been 
specially prepared with some juju medicine for the occasion, 
would lay himself down under the nose of the infuriated cow. 
I expected to see the cow gore the man. It only sniffed at him 
and then raised its head. The crowd was speechless ; so was I. 
When the man withdrew, they went frantic with delight. All 
were eager to shake hands with him. He next climbed around 
the cow's head, sitting between its horns and on its neck; no 
hurt befell him. I managed to get one or two photographs. 
Later in the week one of the fair ladies came to me for payment. 
She was well satisfied when I gave her some photographs of the 
cow and the crowd. 

Every means possible is made in the different centres to 
make the life of the Europeans as pleasant as possible. In 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 



139 



Lokoja, the love for sport is well fostered. There is a 
large recreation ground, where tennis, cricket, football, bad- 
minton, croquet, and golf are played, whilst around the ground 
a racing track has been constructed for those who want further 
excitement. On a ground near to the officers' lines there is a 
polo field, where polo is played three times a week, whilst on 
other days punch ball has full sway. At frequent intervals, 
gymkhanas are arranged by the Europeans and much enjoyed 




Fig. 5. " Lokojar— Bridge of Sighs." 

by all. Last, and by no means least, the Mission ladies will 
arrange pleasant afternoon teas on the tennis courts. When we 
walk along the Camp Eoad, which is the main road of Lokoja, 
and pass over a brick and cement bridge, which has not in- 
appropriately been named the " Bridge of Sighs," owing to the 
number of beggars and lepers who congregate there, the native 
town is reached. (See Figure 5.) (Whilst beggars and cripples 
are rarely seen at Calabar they congregate in large numbers in 



140 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

Lokoja; coming into the town from all places north to beg.) 
As in Ireland it is the case of the eternal potato, so in Northern 
Nigeria it is a case of the eternal yam. Large numbers are on 
sale in the market. The best yams of West Africa are to be 
found in Lokoja market. (See Figure 6.) They are all shapes 
and sizes. Walking amongst the native huts I frequently saw 
women, and often men, busy preparing savoury dishes from 
yams, palm oil and chickens. The men are quite as good cooks 




Fig. 6. " Lokoja— Market." 

as the women. It is a novel sight to see the men on board ship 
at meal time busy cooking their chop (food). The fruits of 
Northern Nigeria are of a poorer quality than those of Southern 
Nigeria. The great delicacy is the pawpaw. It is a kind of 
Melon. After being cut open and the seed taken out, a little of 
the juice of the lime is sprinkled on it, and then it is eaten with 
a spoon. The lime brings out the flavour wonderfully. There 
is also the Mangoe pear, which is only eaten when very ripe. It 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 141 

is something like the English pear but has a very large stone in 
the centre. In addition to the fruits and vegetables mentioned, 
red peppers, cobs of com, onions, ground nuts, palm nuts, guinea 
corn, with a whole variety of flour made from these cereals are 
likewise on sale. From the ground nut, or monkey nut as it is 
called in England, an excellent soup is made. Red pepper is a 
very favourite flavouring with the natives, being found in 
nearly all their dishes in large quantities. They also enjoy the 




Fig. 7. " Lokoja— Barber's Shop." 

kola nut, which is imported from the coast towns. A visit to 
the water side would show the women with children strapped on 
their backs busy washing their pots and pans. The cumber- 
some perambulator is unknown in African towns. The children 
do not seem to be any hindrance to their mothers, whilst the 
child is apparently quite happy and often falls asleep on the 
mother's back. In one corner of the market, a barber has 
established himself. (See Figure 7.) The customer squats 



142 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

down on the floor whilst the barber shaves him with a native 
razor. No soap is used. The beard is softened with cold water, 
and if necessary, the hair of the head also, for many of the 
men have their heads shaved as well as their faces. The mothers 
are very fond of having designs on their children's heads. This 
is accomplished by having part of the head shaved and leaving 
part alone. Some will have one half shaved and the other 
closely cut. Others have all the head shaved except a circular 
patch on the crown. Others again will be shaved down the 
centre of the head, thus saving them the trouble of parting the 
hair in the centre. Another will have square patches of the 
head shaved, the result having very much the appearance of an 
animated draught board. Whilst the men work designs on the 
head with the razor, the women are equally vain with their hair, 
spending hours in the dressing of it. On one occasion I was 
walking in the native town with the camera when the sound of 
the beating of foofoo took me into one of the compounds. A 
woman was sitting in the middle having her hair dressed. At 
sight of the camera she fled into the house. I was fortunate in 
capturing some of the hair. The combings had been placed on 
a low wall, probably to be made up into a pad later on. It is 
difficult to tell the difference between the hair and what is known 
as horse hair. After a little persuasion the hairdresser and 
customer came out and sat for their photographs. Whilst the 
men shave their heads to get the draught board design on them, 
the women arrive at the same end by making a series of parallel 
partings and cross partings; the hair being brought to the 
centre of the several squares and tied up with a piece of black 
cotton. Others work the hair up on the top of the head until 
the finished appearance is like the roof of a house. One woman 
I saw had the hair parted in the centre and plaited ; the ends of 
the plaits finishing off in a fringe round the lower part of the 
head. Others arrange the hair in a number of bobs or buns. 
In fact they have every design imaginable. Leaving the fruit 
and vegetable market and passing through the wood and sugar 
cane section, the interesting iron and leather workers are 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 143 

reached. The iron worker is very clever at his trade. From 

the roughest of ore he will make a hoe, a knife, or any article 

required simply with the aid of native bellows made from skins, 

and the crude hammers made from native iron. The leather 

workers are equally clever. From the Morocco leather, which 

is of goat skin, and which they dye red, yellow, black or green : 

slippers, sandals, boots, shoes, cushion covers, pillow covers, 

purses, and a host of other things are made. Some splendid 

designs are worked on the leather with the aid of a common 

penknife. There is hardly any division of labour amongst 

them. One man will commence and finish a piece of work. 

Time is of very little moment to the black man. If an article 

is not finished one week it will be finished another. They can- 
not understand the Englishman and his hurry. 

Last August I had a very pleasant trip on the Niger to Jebba. 
I travelled on the Scarborough, the largest stern wheeler on the 
river. (All the large boats on the Niger have the paddle wheel at 
the back of the ship instead of at the side.) The first town I came 
to was Egga, on the left bank of the river and north of Baro, which 
is on the right bank. Egga is an important centre of trade for 
the surrounding district. The principal trade is in kernels, 
palm oil and shea nuts. During the wet season, the rise of the 
river divides the town into two islands. Now that the railway 
is to be constructed from Baro to Kano, the trading companies 
are opening stations at Baro and leaving Egga a small sub- 
station. Baro is a small village at the foot of a hill. After 
Baro, the Eaduna river, a tributary of the Niger, in reached. 
A few miles up the Kaduna river lies the capital of Northern 
Nigeria, — Zungeru. Near to Zungeru is the now important 
Eaduna bridge, over which the railway will pass on its way to 
Eano. The native population of Zungeru is small. Before the 
advent of the British Government, Zungeru was unknown. The 
town is not so hilly as Lokoja. The European bungalows are 
situated at the foot of a small kopje known as Lion Hill. As we 
proceeded up the Niger, we reached Shonga, another important 
trade centre and a place which will most probably become the 



144 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

great cotton district of Nigeria. The railway from Lagos to Jebba 
Trill pass through the rich Hinterland of Shonga. Going ashore 
with my camera to take a few photographs all the women who were 
on the beach with their goods exposed for sale, rose to leave 
as I approached. They were afraid of the camera. The natives, 
especially the women, believe that as the camera takes a picture 
of themselves, it must take part of their lives, consequently they 
would die the sooner ; therefore they run away at the approach 
of the camera. I had become quite used to having my pictures 
spoiled in this way. As my camera was one of the reflex 
pattern and made as portable as possible, I could walk about, 
ready to take anything that came my way without trouble. As 
the sight of the women running away was so amusing, I exposed 
a plate on them. I then busied myself with something in the 
opposite direction until they returned. When they had settled 
down again to the selling of their goods, I swung round and 
snapped them before they had realised that they had been 
photographed. Before the advent of the British Cotton Grow- 
ing Association, there was little inducement for the natives to 
grow cotton. All that they required was just sufficient to make 
a few pieces of cloth on their crude native loom. (See Figure 3.) 
Now all that is altered. Instead of the native spending weeks 
in ginning the cotton by hand, spinning it into thread and then 
weaving it into cloth, he goes to the European trader and sells 
the unginned cotton for a piece of cloth. The cotton is then 
purchased by the British Cotton Growing Association, ginned, 
baled and shipped to England. (See Figure 8.) English money 
is unknown in many of the towns, whilst gold is very rarely seen, 
even by the Europeans. Goods are obtained either by barter or 
through the medium of cowry shells. Cowries have been the 
money of the natives for centuries. The price varies from 1,200 
to 2,000 cowries for a shilling. Further up the Niger, salt as 
well as cowries form the currency. It is quite a common sight 
to see cones of salt and small piles of cowries on the floor in the 
market ready for exchange purposes. 

In the native town I saw several pots of steaming food for 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 



145 



sale. People would come with their calabashes for portions of 
the delicacies. In another quarter men were busy with their 
penknives carving wonderful designs on calabashes. The bush 
provides the native with everything necessary for the laying out 
of a dinner table. Spoons, saucers, cups, plates, dishes, and 
every shape of water bottles can be ctit out from the calabashes 
of the bush. After being pulled from the tree, the calabashes 
are dried in the sun. They are then cut as desired and the 




Fig. 8. " Shipping Cotton to England." 



seeds taken out. Beside the large calabashes, the natives make 
a very good earthenware pitcher for the carrying of water. At 
Beda, a large trade is done in earthenware pots. 

A day's sail from Shonga and I was in sight of the famous 
Juju rock of Jebba. (See Figure 9.) Next day, Jebba, the 
first seat of the government of Northern Nigeria, was reached. 
After large sums of money were spent in the erection of bunga- 
lows, the place was abandoned as unsuitable, and the present 



146 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

town of Zungeru built. Had Jebba been more acceaible no 
more delightful place could have been found ; but when steamers 
of not more than three feet draught can only reach the place 
during three or four months of the year, its unsuitability is 
apparent. The Juju rock is the outstanding feature of the 
place. It stands, sentineUlike, beyond the native town. The 
natiyes say that it has been put there by the chief of the Juju 
spirits to guard the places around. The tale goes that five white 
men have attempted to climb the rock, and that all five have 




Fig. 9. " Jebba— Famous Juju Rock." 

died within a short time of their return. The natives say that 
their death has been brought about by the spirit that resides in 
the rock. As a native said to me : " S'pose white man go climb 
dem juju, he go die." Naturally I did not contradict him. It 
is a wonderful rock formation, standing alone in the river, and 
considerably higher than any of the surrounding rocks. The 
hills around, of different heights, give quite an English appear- 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 147 

ance to the country. All the rocks are covered with trees and 
creepers, and as I was there in the wet season, everything was 
at its best. There seemed to be an entire absence of dead trees 
in the bush and shrubbery around, but on closer inspection I 
saw that the dead stumps were covered with brilliant green 
creepers. Having dropped anchor at the trading station, the 
captain and 1 went up to the rock in the ship's surf boat 
to take photographs. I shall always remember that journey 
for this one reason. Keeping near to the edge of the river to 
avoid the strong current as much as possible, the boys would 
pull at the trees as they passed to give impetus to the boat. 
One tree in particular at which they pulled happened to be 
heavily laden with ants. The fact was forcibly driven home to 
us — I might say impressed upon us. During the next few 
minutes we were bitten from head to foot. After that we 
avoided the trees as we would a plague. By the time we re- 
turned the unloading of the ship was well under way. A large 
cargo of salt had been brought up. It was remarkable to see 
. small children carrying fifty-six pound bags of salt on their 
heads with apparently little trouble. 

On arrival of a ship, all the women and children come over 
from the native town — which is on the opposite side of the river 
— to assist in the unloading of the ship. The discharging of 
the cargo is effected by piece-work, so many cowries being paid 
to the people, for each load carried. The loading of the ship is 
done in the same way. For every basket of palm kernels carried 
to the ship, the person is paid so many cowry shells. Men are 
stationed on the way with cowries. (See Figure 10.) As the 
labourers pass, from five to ten cowries are paid to them accord- 
ing to the size of their load. I was fortunate in getting some 
good snap shots of the women running to and from the ship 
with their baskets in their haste to acquire riches. The race for 
wealth can well be understood. A rather amusing incident 
occurred in the loading of the ship with kernels. A small boy 
had got a calabash full of kernels, and was just going to the 
cowry men for his payment when someone accidently knocked 



148 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

the calabash off his head. The boy gazed for a few seconds at 
the calabash and kernels on the ground, not knowing what to 
do. His face was a picture. Suddenly it wreathed in smiles. 
He seized hold of his calabash, raced back to the store, got an- 
other load, and presented himself afresh to the cowry men. 
This reminds me of the happy disposition of the natives. I do 
not recollect seeing a man downhearted excepting the pro- 
fessional beggars who make their living thereby. The Hausas 




Fig. 10. "Loading Steamer; paying cowries to the women.'* 

always look on the bright side of things. Even when someone 
falls a cheer goes up for the poor unfortunate one, whilst the 
person cannot help but rise with a smiling face. Having got 
the complement of cargo, including a good load of cotton for 
the ginnery at Lokoja, the return journey commenced. The 
bush seemed to be even grander than it had been when I came 
up. The flowering creepers, entwined amongst the trees, tended 
to make the bush a wall of green. Except for the boat ground- 



With Pen and Camera in Nigeria 149 

ing once, and once being carried into the bush with the current, 
nothing of note happened. Men were ready waiting at Lokoja 
beach to unload the ship. Whilst women work the cargo on the 
upper Niger, men do it on the lower Niger. In Lokoja and 
places lower down the river the women are engaged in the 
market or in the preparation of food for the men. 

After a few more very very short months in Lokoja — during 
which time I had the good fortune to get the series of photo- 
graphs of the native loom and also to learn a little of the native's 
method of weaving — my time came for the gathering together 
of my goods and chattels and joining a down river boat en route 
for home. On my way I spent a short time in Lagos, at the 
invitation of a very kind friend, for the purpose of getting 
photographs. 

Owing to the innumerable sand banks around Lagos, the 
mail boats are unable to enter Lagos harbour, and have to drop 
anchor outside in the roads and await the arrival of a branch 
or bar boat. The boat arrived outside Lagos in the 
forenoon. Through glasses the branch boat could be 
seen struggling to get off a sand bank. After some 
time she dropped anchor as near to us as she could with 
safety and transhipping commenced. Lagos is the Liverpool of 
West Africa. There are over three hundred Europeans there.' 
Landing on the Marina, which runs along the front of the town, 
I was astonished at the number of large buildings there. Next 
day, my host kindly got an interpreter for me, and he in turn 
got a labourer to carry the camera. The Marina and the build- 
ings thereon provided me with plenty of opportunities for 
taking photographs that day. A French trading company has 
erected a splendid four-storey building, whilst a little further 
is the Bank of British West Africa, a building which would be 
an architectural adornment to any town in England. Proceed- 
ing along the Marina, I came to the Government House — a 
huge building for West Africa. As the very popular governor 
of Southern Nigeria — Sir Walter Egerton — ^was away on tour, I 
obtained permission to take a few photographs. In the grounds 



1 



ISO Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

was a wealth of flowers — many of them imported. I also saw two 
or three tennis courts and a kitchen garden. Carved chairs 
were placed against the walls of the entrance hall of the house, 
wh ilst a large Turkish rug covered the floor. In a room to the right 
I saw a kind of library, whilst on the left was an entertaining 
room. As I was passing through the town the next day, I saw 
Sir Walter Egerton's secretary returning on his cycle. Later 
in the day Sir Walter Egerton arrived in his motor ear. It is 
almost incredible that motor cars and motor vans are in daily 
use on the West Coast. On another day I rode out on the steam 
tram to Iddo to take some photographs of the railway there. 
This line is the one which is to be carried up to Jebba through 
Oshogbo, Lokoja and lUorin. With the extention of the rail- 
way it is hoped that many new districts will be opened out for 
the growing of cotton, and that in a very short time after the 
completion of the line, the cotton industry will have become one 
of the greatest industries of the West Coast. 

Looking from the top of the French Company's stores, or 
from the top of the Church tower, one sees a bewildering 
number of house tops, and for the moment it is difficult to 
realise that it is a west African town that is being looked upon. 

Wandering through the streets, the number of large and 
architecturally beautiful buildings is very great. Gassing at 
the Bank building, one wonders when Sir Alfred Jones will be 
persuaded to erect similar buildings at the important centres of 
Nigeria. The Bank in Lagos enjoys the privilege of the 
Government's patronage. Let such a favour be extended to the 
Bank by the Governors of the two Nigerias, and let an invita- 
tion be given to Sir Alfred Jones to establish branches of the 
Bank of British West Africa in the centres of Nigeria, especi- 
ally at Lokoja and Calabar.* At the present the Government 
conducts its own banking business. This is work that should be 
carried on by a public bank. Adam Smith said that the banks 
of Europe had constructed a broad highway along which the 
commerce of the world ran smoothly. This broad highway is 
lacking in Nigeria. Until it is constructed, commerce will be 



With P^n and Camera in Nigeria 151 

retarded. Will the Nigerian Governors follow the example of 
the old Lagos colony and place their financial matters in the 
hands of the bankP Now that there is a prospect of the country 
being opened out by railways and its trade considerably in- 
creased, the financial working should be placed on a sound 
footing. 



* Since delivering the above lecture a branch of the Bank of British West 
Africa has been opened at Calabar. 



* * * 



X52 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 



SOME ANCIENT DREAMS OP ITALY IN STONE AND 

PAINT. 

By J. Reid Gray. 

(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall, on Tuesday, 
October 1st, 1907.) 

The subject of my notes is one that was altogether unknown to 
me only a year ago. 

Italy till then had not come within my " travel " pleasures. 

The idea of the visit was primarily to see the cities, t.e., the 
man-made glories, rather than the lovely country with the 
varied grandeur of its mountains and plains, its rivers and 
fertilities, although by no means ignoring these favours of 
nature. 

The island of Capri, Naples, Pompei, Rome, Florence, Pisa, 
Genoa, Milan, Pavia and Venice all had a turn, and kept two 
elderly wanderers busy for a couple of months drinking it in. 

My friend was the Literary man, and I still await his story. 
I plied the pencil and brush as a humble impressionist with no 
thought of a show beyond the walls of my "den," or claim of 
value for my notes beyond the mere jottings of a bird-of- 
passage. 

The panoramic sights were so speedy that with the acutest 
observation and the tersest of notes they often proved to be 
mosaics, sometimes broken and difficult (though delightful) to 
try and re-construct. 

Augustus and Tiberius had dreams of Capri and built castles 
there. 

Naples has for outskirts Pozzuoli and Baiae — ^a two-volume 
classic in Stone, — Temples to the gods and Arenas for the sports 
of men. 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 153 

Pompeii. The City splendid, it must have been, from the 
wealthy and powerful dreamer's point of view. The painter's 
Art still visible there shows to what excellence that art had 
reached, in conception, technique and harmony. The very con- 
stituents of their colours have never yet been re-discovered. 

Rome within the walls, with its Baths, Forums, Coliseum, 
Basilicas and Palaces, all tell of dreams that grew embodiments. 
The Vatican alone were it but for the genius of Michael Angelo 
is supreme in treasure, stone and paint. 

Pisa with its unrivalled quartette of Leaning-tower, Duomo, 
Baptistry and Campo Santo, its Frescoes, great and delightful. 

Florence vieing with a vaster crowd of the flights of 
genius, St. Lorenzo, and the riches of the Medici. 

Genoa^s streets of palaces and matchless Campo Santo. 

Milan, the possessor of that poem in gothic masonry and 
sculpture, the Cathedral, a dream of the Vicontis (whose earthly 
failings have been so well imaged lately by Miss Marjorie Bowen 
in her story of "The Viper of Milan"), and of Angelico's 
masterpiece " The Last Supper," in the Church of the Gratzia, 
the sweetest of all renderings of the subject it has been my 
lot to see. 

Pavia. A place for pilgrimage. Its boast, the Certosa and 
Monastery founded 1396 and still in use. A glory of the 
Lombard-Roman school, utterly at variance with the glory of 
Milan, yet a gem of worth which neither sketch nor words can 
much help to realize. 

Venice, the altogether man-made city — in the sea — ^which 
draws the traveller by its history and its monumental dreams, 
St. Mark's, the piazza, the Doge's Palace, the distant St. Giorgio 
across the waters, and the unique quiet of its horseless traffic. 

After this cursory cataloguing of sights, you can readily 
imagine, that vastness as well as detail impresses one as inherent 
in the schemes of Ancient Italian Architects, and thanks to the 



154 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

spirit of the nation, most of these interesting piles are to-day a 
nation's care. 

My " bits " of impressions in paint are mostly of humble 
things, records that I could attain to. The great things I have 
been naming, altogether beyond me. 

Capri, as an island for the artist to delight in surpassed all 
my preconceptions. The coast villages and the hill-towns are 
quaint and full of charm. From strand to summit every feature 
strange and attractive. 

The " Sheer " rock-faces tufted with luxurious tangled 
growth, the square white houses, flat of roof, the window-less 
openings, giving great depth of shadow, steps and landings past 
counting by way of ascent for both man and mule, tortuous 
though well-made roads for wheel-borne transport cross those 
landings every now and then, suggesting that some General 
Wade of Italy deserved the blessings of after generations for 
his road-making. 

The whole gave one a feeling of being Far from England ! 
all seemed " Syrian," a quite new sensation with a charm very 
riveting. 

Picture a town of these white cubes set in the glowing 
colours of this land, reflected in a calm sea as in a mirror. A 
sea so blue, as to be past belief until you've sailed it. It is 
seen at its most wonderful blueness here. Whether it laps 
against the white sides of an anchored yacht, or the black sides 
of a big steamer, the rocky shore, or inside the famous Grotto, it 
is all the same in every circumstance. 

The towns of Capri and Ana-Capri are perched high on the 
mountains, the steps upwards begin almost from the shore, very 
picturesque, cut as they are in the rock face, their angles worn 
and bearded with vine-twigs trailing down in such un- 
kempt fashion that artificiality is out of court. The hedge- 
rows, too, are strange, mostly cactus, of the prickly-pear bear- 
ing sort, and these are the common or garden hedge of the poor 
man of Capri, needing no tending and largely self sown. 

The towns have distinctly architectural claims, roomy 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 155 

market places, court-house churches, hotels and post, built for 
most part on flattened shoulders of the mountains. It was 
distinctly odd to leave an open space by a dim-lit archway and 
find it open again — as the rocks permit — to further parts of the 
town, again, into a tunnelled semi-darkness, the doors of 
domiciles can be discovered, on whose brass plates one may read 
Mr. So and So, Attorney; or Mr. B., British Consul. Once 
more out into the open — walls keep you on on the seaward side 
— are rare points of view for sunset glories. 

The ruins of the Castle built by Tiberius, once a dream, like 
a dream too has faded, no glory left now, but the thought of 
how wise he was in the selection of a building plot, appealed 
to one greatly ! Fresh and airy, it seemed midway to heaven. 
Higher brows run up a thousand feet above this 800 feet level, 
but their crests were enjoyed from the town's heights. 

The coast town of Marina is a lovely place (a Clovelly in the 
East) with a beach wide enough to haul boats upon, and as 
the sea is practically tideless and winter unknown, their only 
trouble is the storm. Swarms of boats and boatmen are in 
evidence. Sail and oar — the delightful way many of their sails 
are clouted (mended) with bright orange and yellow patches 
on tawny originals, is purely an unconscious expression of 
their joy in colour. Little wonder it is so loved by men of the 
brush. 

To approach Xaples as we did at evening, sailing from 
Capri with a gorgeous sunset behind us, gave all the conditions 
that even a J. M. W. Turner could have desired. 

A mountain city rising out of the sea with terraced heights, 
crowned high with the impressive bulk of St. Elmo. Big 
Vesuvius sending up a dense brown mass of ground-pumice — a 
cloud of white vapour over that again, the sleepy cone itself a 
shadowy impassive greatness, as background to the scene made 
up a sight fit to hold its own against all comers. 

Ashore and mixing in the crowd the city gives impressions 
of prosperity by the bustle of its sti-eets. Unlike Xew York, 
where cabs are few and fares are ransoms — Naples swarms with 



156 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

them, and as all Naples appears to ride, fares are very cheap. 
Some American ladies assured us they regularly had a long 
*' lift " for five pence. 

The narrow hill-streets flaunt in the sunshine an endless 
display of washings out of windows, though with less admixture 
of red and blue in the show than Genoa gives, doubtless because 
of the still hotter climate suggesting the freer use of white 
for wear — still, those alleys glow; blue skies, deep shadows, 
green louvres, flowers and fruit. It is a fine sight to stand with 
one's back against the sea wall which runs along the strand 
and protects the Chiaia from the bay. Gardens face you, a 
mile in length along the front, studded with statuary in bronze 
and marble, trees evergreen, a Hotten Row for equestrians, 
(music) and above and beyond the trees rise the dotted villas, 
mansions, terraces, all set in foliage, sage, yellow, red, up to 
the summit ; a creation to be proud of ! 

To look upon the reverse of this upland view, Le., from the 
heights of St. Elmo to look down, we drove there. The zig-sags 
of the ascending streets and roads gave a wonderfully interesting 
experience. Starting from the shopping centre of the city, 
on through second-rate old-town streets of artisans and "small" 
capitalists (huxters), higher still where garden patches are 
cultivated by cab-owners and the like, then to terraces of the 
well-to-do; wide fruit gardens, and, finally, St. Elmo: a full 
two hours' perpetual ascent. 

What an idea it must have been to build such gigantic piles 
on such cloudland elevations. They dwarf the biggest terraces 
into insignificance. Inside the walls we went from cells — with 
their ancient equipments of chains and torture tools, to the 
highest masonry : there leisurely took in the sweeping bay and 
Vesuvius, with the islands of Procida and Ischia in the distance, 
a glorious pi*ospect and worthy companion to the " upland '' 
liH)k. 

That jwrtion of the pile — the now disused monastery of 
St, Martino, together with the Church, — is a perfect dream 
tiwlay. No glory of its buildings or grounds has departed, and 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 157 

except that it is not now an active hive of brothers, it is a telling 
example of Religion's worldly splendours and surroundings. 

Taken possession of by the Government, carefully kept, its 
stores of past industry and genius in art, in garden, pergola, 
cloister, stately chamber, or cubicle alike, shows signs of much 
devoted labour. No ceiling or wall but bears the stamp of 
brain and master-hand. Each room great and small is cata- 
logued in three languages to help the student (or mere visitor) 
to the enjoyment of it all. 

I felt a plethora, past all my power of memory to register, 
yet the feast was great and much to taste. 

The Church alone is among the richest in all Europe. 
Every chapel a treasure-house ! The beautiful screen of 
traceried marble dividing ofiE the choir is a poem in itself. The 
walls are treated in fresco, biblical subjects mostly. It is no 
use naming the artists, the fact remains that they all, or nearly 
all, were gifted. And the marble inlays in columns and wall 
panels give a richness, not common even in priceless schemes of 
decoration. Statuary, bronze-grilles and candelabra, jewelled 
staffs and carved ivories indicate the things of beauty which 
abound, and are past recounting. Yet Naples has more than 
300 churches, to indicate the culture in art which never scarce 
seems to have bubbled over throughout Italy when so many 
buildings were dedicated to Christianity, and a crowd of 
geniuses spent their life's best in the absorbing enthusiasm of 
building and enriching. 

Outside the " domestic " part of this Royal Eyrie (Duke of 
Calabria, 1650 or so) is the world-famed Belvedere, a balcony 
which runs round an angle of the building connecting two 
apartments, projected, as it were, out from a tower (the height 
is so giddy) and the look of the structure so slight, when 
contrasted to the huge mass to which it belongs. Friend (the 

L ) dared not to venture upon the breezy footing and 

wander round the unique camera! I dared, and felt repaid, 
such opportunities are rare ! 

What between the National Museum holding ancient 



158 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

treasures unequalled under one roof (the field of their gathering 
was great), and modern works in the palaces, Naples had an 
irresistible spell, it may be that the ever visible ocean and the 
mountains near and far were unconsciously in the scale along 
with man's achievements, but the bond grew tighter every day. 

By way of change from city sights a big day's driving gives 
a new and refreshing pleasure. After a visit to Virgil's tomb 
advantage was taken en route for the classic land of Cumae and 
Baiae to visit Solfataro, a so-called extinct volcano believed to 
be, long ages ago, greater than Vesuvius, but it blew its own 
head off, and now the rim of the crater is four miles round, a 
vast, flat, sulphur field with a crust known to be only 30 feet 
thick or so, and by way of demonstration some youths drew 
our attention by dropping stone balls 20 to 30 lbs. weight, that 
we might hear the hollow sound, and there was no mistaking it. 
Sheer astonishment fixed us when at one spot, which is protected 
and in charge of an attendant, we looked down into what 
appeared to be boiling liquor in a cauldron, but in reality is the 
largest vent in the crust, steaming and boiling away as so much 
coarse porridge. The attendant poked an iron ladle into the 
dancing, splattering mess, and dished it near our feet. It was 
scarcely credible to find no liquor at all, but dry stones, rather 
bigger than peas, and when they got cool enough to handle, 
they were brought away for the curio shelf ! 

Down the mountain and following the coast by hilly roads, 
fig-hedged and cactus-bordered, by Pozzuoli, once a flourishing 
port and the place where St. Paul and St. Luke landed when 
sent by Agrippa to Rome. The whole coast bristles with the 
remains of temples and villas which must have made it — ^with 
art and nature combined — a wondrous sight, two thousand or 
more years ago. 

Merchants and rulers, rich beyond the dreams of avarice, 
as well as philosophers and poets flourished here. The Temple 
of Serapis (Jupiter), a vast record of the ambitious flights those 
ancient architects dared, has, even as a ruin, had an eventful 
history : uninjured it had sank bodily with the coast around, a 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 159 

matter of three or four yards, until the mosaic floors were under 
the sea level. New floors had been laid to meet the trouble, 
dwarfing the halls by so much. 

Solfatara, once again active, filled it with lava, then it was 
abandoned; another volcanic upheaval raised the ruin, the 
three remaining columns still erect showing that during the 
centuries of immersion they had been literally honeycombed by 
sea-worms (Lithodomi), up to the sea-level mark. They are 
saved again — for the present — out of reach of said industrious 
wreckers, a curious and interesting sight. 

This same upheaval also raised a new mountain close by in 
one night, and there it stands to-day 450 feet high, vine covered 
and ancient enough looking already. Its name is Monte If novo ! 

Baiae and Cumae, ancient cities, are both villages now, of 
small impoi-tance, but big with old associations — mind as well 
as matter; it was delightful to sit and conjure up as best 
one could this veritable land of temples in the zenith of its 
glory and worship. 

Horace says, ** Nothing in the world equalled this spot." 

The meeting place of the gods, beautiful shrines had risen 
to Diana, Apollo, Neptune, Vesta, and the rest. The country 
round is particularly suited to foster the belief in things 
uncanny. The quaking earth, the lakes of noxious gases, 
old Avernus and Lucrino — the sunless caverns all lent their 
weird mysterious powers to work spells. 

There is a wonderful old Colosseum partly roofed — all still 
in strong condition, with a strange trait possessed by its walls. 
A brick left out here and there forms an orifice which, when 
spoken into, carries the faintness of a whisper half round the 
great building, and can be heard by a listener there quite 
distinctly. Query, I wondered did this find practice with the 
oracles long ago, for messages from Hades to enquiring mortals ? 
But I wondered often in that land, and was now and then 
inclined to say with Dominie Sampson, " Prodigious !" Certain 
it is that the grand army of cultured pagans gave this corner 



z6o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

of Italy a deathless interest; an army for whom the scholarlT 
world would moam indeed were their records lost beyond recall. 

Pompeiiy on the other side of Naples, proved for a time an 
enigma great and difficult. In its prime it was but a place 
of 25,000 inhabitants, its streets very like those of southern 
Italian towns to-day — ^nearly all narrow, the houses rarely two 
stories high, except the public buildings and the villas of the 
wealthy landowners. These villas, be it noted, are in the streets 
not suburban, but in the heart of the town, as still in many 
parts of Rome. 

The position of the town is on the flat base of Vesuvius four 
or five miles from the crater. 

It was very difficult while walking its silent streets to 
imagine it and its people alive and active two thousand years 
ago, more difficult somehow than with ancient Rome in the 
Forum, for it is mixed and hedged round by the living, but 
Pompeii is all lifeless, its houses all roofless, the exceptions are 
so few. The numerous small houses or single apartments which 
were the homes of the many, must have been ill-conditioned; 
streets bounding blocks of houses on every side, so that no 
gardens and scarcely back-yards were the lot of craftsmen and 
labourers. Xo evidence of workshops, set apart as such, is 
seen — ^nor stables — and yet the wheeled vehicles must have been 
many as the great boulder stones that pave the streets are worn 
into ruts both deep and smooth. 

These streets are curiously formed, no parallel to them, so 
far as I have read, exists elsewhere to-day. In many of them 
traffic must have gone in one direction only, for two carts of 
the gauge of those wheel ruts could not pass, besides, there are 
stepping-stone obstructions at regular distances apart that no 
horse harnessed to a cart could get over at all. To explain : in 
these narrow streets the side-walks are three to four feet wide 
and eighteen inches high above the centre way : now to get from 
one side-walk to the other, a series of stepping-stones as high 
as the side-walks and about two feet square stand up out of the 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint i6i 

cart-road; and the folks could cross on these, even when the 
streets were deeply flushed with water or storm rain. 

As for the wheeled trafl&c, it dawned upon me that slaves 
were the cattle employed {they were classed and sold with 
cattle) to draw their ladened carts. Dodging the stepping- 
stones while the axles were high enough to straddle over. This 
idea I have not seen suggested anywhere, but it is certainly 
a solution of the problem. 

That slaves were plentiful is known, and that their quarters 
were wretched is also known — ^the sharp line of demarcation 
between the grand villas and the ruling families and the four 
plain walls of the artisan's dwelling and workshop in one, is 
hard to square with each other. That the latter were artists 
is past dispute, the National Museum at Naples groans with the 
weight of evidence, nothing from a salt spoon or a bodkin to 
the great bronzes and altars of sacrifice but tells their makers 
were artists. And, though the extensive buildings of the Mother 
Temple, the Great Forum, the Triangular Forum, the Temples 
of Isis, Apollo, Jupiter, and others of the gods (not to name 
any of the houses of the great families) are but ghosts of 
Pompeii alive, the ruins are so rich in evidence of the unlimited 
ideas in plan and execution, that the columned vistas are like 
ranks of soldiers in line almost, whilst every Statue, Consule, 
Seat, Sundial or Fountain, show the charm and delicacy of 
Greek work perfectly rendered. 

Pompeii as it is, has a uniformly blue-black colour to show 
you in the mass. The excavating has gone through the rough 
plaster faces to the stone in nearly the whole extent of it. The 
Tuffa of which it is built is bare inside and out in Tnost of the 
houses, the roadways are ditto, and but for sunshine and shadow 
with a rare bit of greenery within its walls, it would be dull 
indeed and monotonous, hence the difficulty one had in trying 
to picture it as those white Syrian-looking houses of the living 
in the neighbourhood ; but after spending considerable time in 
Torre-del-Greco and Annunziata, noting that one room, twelve 
to fourteen feet square, had the master working bronze with 



zd2 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

crucible and bench and vice and files making delightful little 
iripods and statuettes, the mother with her sheet-tin oven out 
of doors, the signs of bedsteads sided for the day and scarce a 
sign of other furniture. 

Next door a marble mason (sculptor) busy on an alabaster 
communion table, using a drill that made one smile, primitive 
past doubt — a direct descendant of the drill of Pompeii — 
just like a screwdriver; he held it with left hand against 
right shoulder, the point pressed hard into the alabaster, 
whilst boy of thirteen (or less) gave it the drilling action by 
pulling a strong cord wound about the centre bobbin, right 
strenuous work for the 'prentice — ^left and right alternate 
pulling as hard as he was able; the carver, every half minute 
or so, putting a pipe of bamboo to his lips, blowing the powdered 
dust from the drill-point without any stoppage of the chasing. 

Next adjoining cubicle — ^a wine shop, its counter a small 
letter L-shaped thing, the jars let into the fixtures, in every 
way the repeat of those in Pompeii; and so I got to see the dead 
old city (in my mind) astir again, and the craftsman raising 
those " bits of history " that live through the ages to tell us 
even more than papyri, what manner of men and dreamers were 
this ancient race. 

Evidently, all the labours of these oceupantjs of uninteresting 
domiciles were swept into the grand ones where everything was 
pleasing, from the frescoed walls of bathrooms and wardrobes 
to the cloistered walks round the bijou garden plots, for the 
largest of these garden plots were but small, yet they were 
dignified by their setting, A central fountain, tables, bronie 
or alakister, or both, Hermes, groups of statuary, trailing vines 
and flowers ^with aiies and peacocks, from Tarshish I suppose). 
(Ine has to picture the men in flowing robes, full-bearded or 
ilose-shaven, their feet in sandals, their slaves attendant. 
Minlern evening-dress and funnel hats could have no place 
thert' amid the classic atmosphere of Temples and a Forum that 
called for daily rites of some sort to propitiate the gods and 
<itrr the common peoph^ 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 163 

That there was humour in the old city is past questioning, 
and if brevity be the soul of wit the business signs still visible 
on the street fronts show it. A symbol in most cases sufl&ced — 
a serpent for an apothecary, a flagon for a wine-shop, a vase for 
a career, and so on, with other simple and effectual signs to 
indicate the occupations. Some of the larger houses, with 
passages from the street-gate to the roofless hall ( Atrium j, are 
laid in mosaic with equally telling ideas worked into the 
designs, such as the text, " Salve Lucra," which, freely inter- 
preted, says, " You are welcome if you come to trade !" implying 
also the contrary. Another has a savage-looking dog held on 
a chain — all in mosaic — ^with the well-known legend, " Cave 
canem (beware of the dog) " underwritten. 

Some painted drawings on the plastered walls help us to the 
forms of their household gods. Interiors were frequently the 
subject of their decorations, so that all goes to confirm the fact 
that out-of-door life was their mode — when not asleep ! 

Two theatres, one capable of holding every grown-up in the 
city, made one wonder who would look after the bambinos 
when it was crowded. The lesser — a STnall replica — ^held 2,000, 
then an ampitheatre beyond the walls, for wild beast revels and 
the like — all State-owned; it looks uncommonly like a partial 
communism when entertainments were concerned. 

Compared with these roomy places, the one prison was a 
surprise in smallness. In one of its cells may still be seen all 
that is left of an inmate ! Bent and crushed by the falling 
mass, he had evidently tried to break a wall and get liberty, 
but in vain, for he is on all fours with a hammer head beside 
him. 

The last thing I looked upon was the Temple of Mercury 
and the still perfect altar of sacrifice there, sharp and beautiful 
as the day it left the sculptor's hands. 

Rome. To register a deep pictorial picture of the Eternal City 
is quietly to view it from outside the walls a mile or more away at 



i64 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

noontide. Across the Campagna dotted with portions of the 
graceful acqueducts, cattle in plenty, their strange neck-hells 
tinkling as they move, the brown old Tiber in these rural parts 
flowing between green banks and the distant city within its 
walls, white, smokeless, vast and silent as if it were tenantless : 
all in sunshine under a blue heaven — thus we saw it, a beautiful 
dream as much as an embodiment of man's labour. 

On closer acquaintance the almost incredible vastness of 
some of Italy's ancient schemes is realised. When one looks on 
the remains of the baths of Garacalla, and the even vaster ones 
of Diocletian, it gives one pause. Ten Westminster Abbeys 
with room to spare could be set in either of them. Systems of 
water supply and heating, lead piping and clay channels all 
considered from the beginning, tell the builders knew their 
work from start to finish, before the start was made. These 
buildings had sculpture-halls and picture galleries, promenades 
and book-rooms. Every bath floor, mosaic in fit design for such 
great areas. Walls 3 yards thick, and arches just as strong, 
three storeys high, built with a mortar that has knit them like 
the very rocks together. 

The Cathedral of Rome is not the great St. Peter's, but the 
Church of St. Giovanni of Lateran, built on the plateau of 
Monte Celio, the walls of Rome bounding one side of it, from 
whence can be seen through a fringe of sparse-clad trees a 
lovely prospect full of colour. Campaniles and lower red-roofs 
jag the line against the smoke-coloured Alban hills beyond — a 
perfect spot to build a Cathedral on. St. Giovanni — like many 
a religious pile in Italy, is very much more than a church. 
It has its baptistry, cloisters, palace, picture gallery and 
museum. Relics, in plenty. The Holy Stair is here down which 
Christ walked from the Tribunal of Pilate, in Jerusalem. 
Luther is said to have been ascending this on his knees (the 
only way still permissible) when the text " The just shall live 
by faith," entered his mind. He arose and left the place 
abruptly. 

The heads of the martyred Saints Paul and Peter are both 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 165 

here — ^rarely shown. The whole interior has a general effect, 
grander and brighter than the great St. Peter's, not more 
stately f mark you. 

The frescoes are still very fresh on walls and dome of the 
baptistry. There is the historic font of green basalt in which 
Bienzi bathed in 1347. The cloister screens of marble call up 
those dream of Pisa's Campo Santo. 

Of Rome's numberless treasures I dare not even name those 
I saw, the list is so big with interest. Admittedly the hub of 
ancient Rome is the Forum Romanum, but the wreck is so 
complete that ninety-nine out of a hundred can scarce approach 
in their imaginings any reconstruction of what it must have 
been in the days of its splendour. With Hadrian's tomb, it is 
otherwise — and though reft of its outside show of marble 
columns, cornices and statuary, by vandal hands long centuries 
ago, it is yet full of stately beauty in the russet of stone and 
brick, and looks enduring as earth itself. 

Internally, from the very entrance, a great road of 30 feet 
wide, and 12 feet high to its arched ceiling, winds up a gentle 
spiral and leads past dungeons on to open courts, great 
chambers and bastioned ramparts. 

Like Pompeii, it had been " internally " silted up for 
centuries, though not with lava. 

During the time of Gregory the Great, when Rome was 
plague-stricken, he saw as he crossed the Tiber a vision of 
St. Michael over this Tower, sheathing his sword — a sign from 
heaven that the plague was stopped that hour, and so he caused 
the name of Hadrian's tomb to be henceforward the Castle of 
St. Angelo. 

A heroic-sized statue, in bronze emblematic, now guards the 
hospital midway up the pile, whilst a church — St. Michael 
among the clouds — a beautiful title I think — crowns the 
ramparts. Here, the view of Rome and the country around 
from the Sabine Hills to the sea is very fine, and full of history. 

That dull time " the middle ages " intervened, and until 



x66 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Pope Clement, about 1630, get to work unearthing, nothing wa4 
known of the wondrous internals of the great Botunda. 

He reinstated Hadrian's audience chamber, his Hall of 
justice, caused it to be decorated by Paul Famese, and there 
it is, a master's work still delightful to look upon. This dream 
in paint shows the features of its ancient " forbears " distinctly, 
and though Pompeii at that date had long been lost sight of, 
the treatment tells that its unique art had even then some 
tradition and vitality, finding expression. A most interesting 
link centuries apart, helping one to picture Pompeii a little 
clearer, but in its un-ruined completeness. 

That Hadrian's dreams were of the " vasty " type can be 
understood when one realises that his villa at Tivoli — rich in all 
conceivable possessions, covered miles in extent, and is still a 
marvel in wondrous ruins and natural beauty of surroundings. 
Of the villa Borghese, the once-was abode of " Pauline " — 
sister to Napoleon — I merely mention one apartment, because it 
further gave a key to open and look in upon — ^what might have 
been — a Pompeian lady's chamber — "before the rain of ashes 
fell." Ceiling, frieze, walls, doors, seats, tables (to globes and 
golden fishes), a revelation of perfect taste and dignity. I 
owned me worshipful. The image set up was crowned and 
Pompeii lived again ! 

Pisa, That wealth in plenty flowed in this old City and 
Republic long ago, and that flush times gave with no niggard 
hand the plus beyond " living " requirements, to raise such 
lovely marble piles is quite certain. The Duomo is a study, 
the outer effect of the roof of the nave is its weakest, but the 
mere grouping of roofs and angles, transepts, chapels and dome 
is happy against the sky by night as well as noonday, and a 
single look upward from the inside confirms the happiness, 
full of thought in idea and full of joy in labour. 

The Campo Santo — rich within the gates, presents plain 
walls to the outer world, but the disclosure made when once 
across the threshold is a big surprise. A lovely Tu8can-Gothi<'. 
traceried screen in mellowed white Carrara marble fronts the 



Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint 167 

arcade and bisects the great quadrangle. Frescoes decorate 
the arcade walls in immense panels with subjects — History and 
allegory— St. Ramieri's " Return from Palestine," Solomon and 
Sheba's Queen, Triumph of Death, full of power and genius, the 
story of Job, etc. Giotto and Laurentii, the authors of those 
out-of-doors creations in paint, are perhaps not surpassed by 
$iny in existence. The famous leaning tower has an uncanny 
look about it, beautiful past expectation in mass and detail from 
its base on the skewed and sunken pavement up its seven storied 
galleries to the topmost course. 

The Lungarnos — those open, breezy, river-side ways with 
old-world air of quiet uncommercial stir, and the smokeless 
atmosphere suggests ancient Mechlin, spread out and glorified. 

Florence, Housed in the home of the TroUopes, we lingered 
on the banks of the Arno and thought of Dante, looked on the 
spot where Savonarola met death — traversed the Ponte Vecchio 
with its clustering groups of houses, quaint past sketch or 
words to convey its oddities ; admired the doors of the baptistry, 
the Campanile and Cathedral; saw a band of the Misericordia 
take some poor fellow to his resting-place, and from the outskirts 
of the town, among plebian homes, looked upon Fiesole. 

Venice. A chance coincidence housed us where Ruskin 
lived and wrote his " Stones of Venice." This house — the 
Villa Calcine (pronounced Kal chee na) — bears on its modest 
front a memorial tablet, recording the city's gratitude and 
admiration for his words and works. 

St. Mark's is all that he has said of it, from entrance to high 
altar, from floor to highest dome. Many visits were paid, 
happily one when no service was in progress. The beautiful 
light shone through the dome windows giving a glamour to 
carvings and the golden-ground mosaics which cover arcades 
high and low. It was enough to gaze and hold one's breath and 
wonder ! To do more seemed hopeless, so extraordinary is the 
scheme of its architecture, contenting oneself with an effort to 
try and burn into the memory, a corner, over and to the left 
of the screen across the apse. 



i68 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

In the Doge's Palace are dreanu in paint as good as they are 
great in size, the biggest in the world in fact. The Paradise, 
by Tintoretto, 90 feet by 30 feet, had been taken from the wall 
and re-mounted on a new stretching frame, some slight frailties 
in the canvas repaired. It was a sight — ^that repairing — as 
convincing to me of Italian ability and patience, as the comer 
pillar of the palace with its " Capitol of Paradise," said by 
John Buskin to be the acme of superb sculpture. 

There is an idea abroad in England that Italians at home are 
largely of the Lazaroni, and that, " begging " is a chief occupa- 
tion. The evidence of my senses and observation give this 
notion the denial direct. And I wish that Italy was but nearer 
to Lancashire that I might re-visit it now and again for the joy 
of its heaped-up labours and its colourings. 



♦ ♦ ♦ 



CDe Journal 



OF THE 

maticDester e^ograpMcal Socletp. 

^fh ^ ^ 

'A WOMAN'S WAY THROUGH UNKNOWN - 
LABRADOR."* 

By Mrs. Leonidas Hubbard, Junr. 

(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on 
Tuesday, October 8th, 1907.) 

In the north-eastern portion of the Dominion of Canada is the 
great Labrador Peninsula, which, though first to be discovered, 
is of all the regions of North America the last and least 
explored. North of the fifty-fourth parallel, it is nine hundred 
miles in extent from Hudson Bay on the west to the Atlantic 
Ocean on the east, and between its southern boundary, the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and its extreme northern point at 
Hudson Straits lie eight hundred miles of almost unbroken 
wilderness. The peninsula is estimated to contain 511,000 
square miles, its interior being a vast elevated, rocky, irregular 
plateau, in places standing well out to the coast and cut by 
valleys down which great rivers carry to the sea the waters of 
its myriads of lakes and streams. 

Knowledge of the interior of the Peninsula was until the 
sixties confined to that obtained by the agents of the various 

• We are indebted to the American Geographical Society for permission to print 

this paper. 
Vol. XXIII. No. 4, 1907. 



170 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Hudson's Baj Company's posts established at long interrals on 
the coast and in the interior; but, in accordance with the policy 
of the Company, their findings were not recorded. One notable 
exception to this rule was that of John McLean, to whom falls 
the honour of being the discoverer of the Grand Falls of the 
Hamilton River. In 1838, 1841 and 1842 he crossed and 
recrossed the country lying between Lake Melville and TJngava 
Bay; but the accounts of these journeys which appear in his 
" Twenty-Five Tears in the Hudson Bay Territory," are very 
incomplete, and he left no maps. 

In 1862, Henry Yule Hind made his survey of the Moise 
River. In 1887, Dr. R. F. Holmes, an English traveller, made 
an attempt to reach the Grand Falls of the Hamilton, 
two hundred and fifty miles above the mouth of the river, but 
was obliged to return without accomplishing his purpose, his 
crew proving inefficient and his outfit inadequate. In 1892 
two expeditions from the United States reached the Grand 
Falls — one from Bowdoin College under Messrs. Carey and Cole, 
and the other under Mr. Henry G. Bryant, recently President 
of the Philadelphia Geographical Society. 

But the great Labrador explorer is Mr. A. P. Low, Director 
of the Geological Survey of Canada. More than that of all 
others, hid work has tended to dispel the darkness of mystery 
so long shadowing the interior of the great peninsula. Yet 
Mr. Low's work, which extended over a period of ten years, and 
which is set forth in the reports of the Geological Survey of 
Canada, had left the north-eastern portion, lying between Lake 
Melville and Ungava Bay, still virgin field for the explorer, 
where remained two large rivers to be traversed and mapped. 

On the 15th July, 1903, Leonidas Hubbard, Jr., my husband, 
with two companions, set out from North-west River Post, near 
the head of Lake Melville, for a canoe trip into the interior, 
which he hoped would not only aflEord him an interesting 
wilderness experience, but also an opportunity to explore and 
map one, and perhaps both, of these rivers, the North-west 
River draining Lake Michikamau to Lake Melville, and the 



Unknown Labrador 171 

George River draining the northern slope of the plateau to 
Ungava Bay. 

Misled by information obtained at the post, which 
corresponded with the indications of the map he carried, that 
of the Geological Survey of Canada, Mr. Hubbard took the 
Susan River, which enters Grand Lake at its upper extremity, 
instead of the larger river draining Lake Michikamau and 
entering Grand Lake at the head of a bay five miles from its 
western end. The Susan River led them, not by an open 
waterway to Lake Michikamau, but up to the edge of the 
plateau, where they became lost in the maze of its lakes. 
When within sight of the great lake the party was forced to 
begin a retreat which Mr. Hubbard did not survive to complete, 
and the object of his expedition was not achieved. 

Nevertheless, in utter physical weakness, utter loneliness, 
in the face of defeat and death, he yet wrote that final record 
of his life, so triumphantly characteristic, which turned his 
defeat to a victory immeasurably higher and more beautiful 
than the success of his exploring venture could ever have been 
accounted, and thus was compassed the higher purpose of his 
life. 

That his lesser purpose might not remain unaccomplished 
I myself, in 1905, undertook the conduct of the second Hubbard 
Expedition, and, with the advantage of the information and 
experience obtained by the first, a larger crew and a three 
weeks' earlier start, successfully completed the work undertaken 
two years before. The map which this article is intended to 
accompany sets forth the work I was able to accomplish. It 
does not claim to be other than purely pioneer work. I had 
with me a surveyor's compass and a sextant and artificial 
horizon. I took no observations for longitude, but obtained a 
iew for latitude, which served as guiding points in making my 
map. Owing to the fact that I depended on water instead of 
taking mercury with me for my artificial horizon, a number 
of observations were lost because of the ease with which the 
surface of the water was disturbed and the gathering of moisture 



172 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

on the glass. The controlling points of the journey were 
already astronomically fixed.* The shores of the lake were not 
explored, but outlined as they appeared from the canoe or from 
the top of a hill. 

The map of the route of the first Hubbard Expedition is 
from one drawn for me by George Elson, with the few 
observations for latitude recorded by Mr. Hubbard in his diary 
as guiding points. Mr. Hubbard's note-book, containing his 
maps and other records I have not had access to. 

My expedition left North-west River Post 3-30 p.m., June 
27th. I had two canoes and four guides, chief among whom 
was George Elson, who had loyally served Mr. Hubbard in IQOS, 
and who had, with a rare skill and a rarer devotion, recovered 
Mr. Hubbard's body, his records, and his photographic material 
from the interior, in the depth of the following winter. My 
supply of provisions totalled 750 lbs., the complete outfit 
weighing 1,000 lbs. July 17th found us at the head of Seal 
Lake. August 2nd we made our first camp on Lake Michikamau. 
August 10th we arrived at the Height of Land, and in seventeen 
days made the run down the Greorge River to the post at 
Ungava, arriving there at 11-20 a.m., August 27th. 

The Nascaupee River may be said to have its origin in 

lat. 54° 50', and W. long. 64° 30', at the edge of the Height of 

Land, its course from this point to the ocean describing a 

somewhat awkward-looking letter W. The distance in a 

straight line to its discharge into Lake Melville is two hundred 

miles, but following the windings of its course is about three 

hundred miles. From the Height of Land a series of lake 

expansions stretches nearly one hundred miles east of south, 

the last and largest being Lake Michikamau, of all the lakes 

of the interior second only to Mistassini in size. It is sixty 

miles long and twenty-five miles in width at its widest. The 

Nascaupee River issues from the lake to the east a few miles 

north of lat. 54°. The outlet is partly concealed by a large 

* Northwest Kiver Post, Lake Michikamau and its outlet, and the mouth 
of the George Biver. 



Unknown Labrador 173 

island to the south, and the river flows from the lake round a 
low wooded point, breaking into rapids as it spreads about the 
islands in the upper end of Lake Agnes. Its course is now 
north-east to Seal Lake, the first fifty miles being through the 
great plain of the lakes, where MacEenzie and Fremont are its 
largest expansions. 

Here a thousand lakes spread over the country, separated 
from Lake Michikamau by a low ridge extending northward 
along its eastern shore. Across the plain from east to west 
stretches a succession of low wooded ridges, seeming to become 
higher and more barren in the north. The wood growth is of 
small spruce and larch, unrelieved by the touch of white birch 
and poplar found in plenty on the lower levels, and the ridges 
extend eastward to the long portage and beyond, and are 
separated from the great irregular hills which occupy the 
country west of Seal Lake by a broad sand plain. To the south 
of the lakes the country is more rugged and barren, big rocky 
hills standing out towards Lake Michikamau. 

At the foot of Lake Marie the river descends from the plain 
at Isabella Falls, a system of falls and rapids and chutes 
extending for more than a mile, where the water rushes over 
ledges, round rocky islands and through miniature Canons, an 
abrupt right angle bend midway of the descent adding to the 
wildness and picturesque beauty of the scene. The rock, which 
is Laurentian, is rich red brown, almost purple in colour, and 
its perpendicular surfaces are patched with a close grey-green 
moss and a variety the colour of vermilion. Islands and shores 
are wooded, and the dark spruces stand out in strong relief 
against the white of the reindeer moss. From this point east- 
ward to beyond our long portage which is as far as the wooded 
country extends, there is a perceptible difference in the size of 
the trees, those in the sheltered river valley attaining a larger 
growth than those on the plain above. 

For the next seven miles the river drops rapidly. Two wild 
and impassible rapids occur before reaching Gertrude Falls, 
where the river takes a direct drop of about sixty feet, flowing 



Z74 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

on in almost continuous rapids to the next drop at Maid Marion 
Falls. Here it descends fifty feet into a narrow channel cut 
out in the gneiss and schists of the Laurentian, emerging from 
the hills ten miles below to a terraced sand plain four miles 
wide. Beyond this it passes through the sea of hills west of 
Seal Lake. The main drop in this part of its course takes place 
in a fall of a few feet a short distance below the plain, and at 
Cascade and Seal Eapids, though there are a number of smaller 
rapids. There is a little green wood along this part of the river, 
the country here and around the northern part of Seal Lake 
having been burned over long ago. It is now grown up with 
poplar and white birch, from the midst of which the rocky hill- 
tops rise bare and stern. A few small lake expansions occur, 
Wachesknipi being the largest. Here the country flattens out 
again to low sand ridges, and the river, bending a little to the 
south enters Seal Lake. (See Fig. 1.) 

From the northern extremity of the lake an arm, which, 
according to the trappers, is thirty miles long, extends away to 
the west. As far as we could see, the hills along its south shore 
drop abruptly to the river, like the Palisades of the Hudson. 
The course of the river is to the south, the lake contracting 
seven miles down to about three hundred yards in width, where 
perpendicular cliffs rise from the water edge and the current is 
very swift. The lake is surrounded by hills, the wildest and 
most rugged region being that about the outlet. It lies close 
to the edge of the plateau, and, from the point where the river 
leaves it, the water breaks into tossing rapids. From here to 
the northern extremity of Bald Mountain the river is still un- 
explored. According to the trappers, it rushes down a continu- 
ous rocky slope, the hills in places rising perpendicular from 
its edge. 

Below the bend at Bald Mountain the direction of the river 
is south-east to Grand Lake. Its course lies mainly through 
sand hills and terraces, its banks varying from a few feet to 
sixty and eighty and one hundred feet in height. The valley 
is mostly well wooded with spruce and balsam as far as Mabelle 



Unknown Labrador 175 

Island, and here the spruce reaches splendid size. The trees 
are very tall and straight, and one I measured was nine feet in 
circumference. Below the island the country was swept by 
fire twenty-five years ago, and the new growth is still quite 
small.. Among the hills Bald Mountain and Mts. Elizabeth 
and Sawyer are the most prominent features, being apparently 
more than a thousand feet in height. From Bald Mountain 
the rapids are continuous to Point Lucie, below Mt. Sawyer, 
the heaviest being North Pole and Three Mile Rapids. The 
remaining seventeen miles to Grand Lake is smooth water, 
though the current continues swift, and the river enters the 
lake around a number of small wooded islands, which entirely 
obscure it from the lake. 

Grand Lake is forty miles long and four miles wide, and ier 
very deep. It lies south of east among the hills, the highest 
and most striking of these being Berry Head on the north shore, 
and Porcupine Hill, Cape Blanc, and Cape Corbeau on the 
south. From the eastern extremity of the lake a three-mile 
stretch of rapid river carries its waters to Lake Melville, where, 
together with those of the Grand or Hamilton, they pass north- 
east, entering the Atlantic north of the 54th parallel. 

Throughout its length the Nascaupee receives tributaries of 
considerable size, on the upper river the principal contribution 
coming in from the north. Its waters are clear and cold, 
though some of the streams which enter it belOw Seal Lake are 
red brown water. On June 29th I found its shores at the foot 
of Three Mile Rapid lined with ice banks eight and ten feet 
thick, though above them violets were in bloom. On August 
3rd we saw large masses of ice, like miniature bergs, floating 
in Lake Michikamau. Almost throughout the length of the 
river there was the border of tangled Arctic willows, which 
grow to a height of six and eight feet, and in many places broom 
birch covered its law drift islands and shores. (See Fig. 2.) On 
the islands of Lake Michikamau and some of its more exposed 
points the spruces were sometimes dwarfed and distorted by the 
storms; and farther north, about the Height of Land, where 



176 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

the country is flat and boggy, the wood growth consists mainly 
of tamarack with small spruce interspersed, many of the tall, 
slender tops of the former being completely bent over, telling 
of the rigours of the climate. 

Standing on a slight elevation near the Height of Land, I 
had the feeling of being at the summit of the world. The 
country seemed to fall away, especially to north and south. 
The line of the horizon seemed too near to be natural, and there 
was more than the usual realizing sense of the gi^at space 
between the earth and sky. This was emphasized by the lifting 
of a far-distant hill-top above the line, as if in an attempt to 
look across the divide. (See Fig. 3.) 

The middle source of the George River is in Lake Hubbard, 
immediately north of the Height of Land, so that it may be 
accounted to take its rise in practically the same latitude and 
the same longitude as the Nascaupee. Its course is west of 
north, and for more than fifty miles it consists of a series of 
lake expansions of varying sizes, whose waters drop from one 
to another down shallow rapids. About the lakes the country 
is quite flat, low ridges beginning to appear as we passed north- 
ward. Five miles below Cabot Lake the east. branch of the 
upper George comes in, a stream apparently almost equalling 
the middle river in volume, and twelve miles farther down the 
west branch, which drains Attikamagen Lake near the Height 
of Land to the south-west. Ten miles beyond Resolution Lake 
the river drops down through three rocky gorges at Canon 
Camp, the lake expansions of the upper country are left behind, 
and the George River now flows with strong, swift current in a 
distinct valley. From a few miles below the camp the country 
is burned over, and is exceedingly desolate, the hills being 
barren even of reindeer moss. These hills become higher, till 
below Thousand Island Expansion they rise between six 
hundred and seven hundred feet above the river. 

The river here flows for about two miles in falls and heavy 
rapids round islands of pink-and- white rock, beyond which the 
descent is less precipitate. In the next six miles two heavy 
rapids occur, at the second of which the river descends to flow 



Unknown Labrador 177 

between high sand banks, the hills standing back some distance 
from its shores, their broken faces red with a coating of iron 
rust. The intervening spaces are strewn with boulders of 
unusual size. Some miles below a large tributary comes in 
from the west, the river turns abruptly northward among the 
higher hills and spreads to the Barren Ground Water. 

This expansion is somewhat more than fifty miles in length 
and from one to two wide. It is shut in on either side by high 
hills, which in places on the east shore rise abruptly from the 
water edge, but on the west usually stand a little back from the 
lake, the intervening spaces being filled in with sand. Long, 
high, wedge-shaped points of sand and loose rock reach out here 
and there from the west shore, which in places slopes back to 
the hills in high terraces, the highest more than one hundred 
and fifty feet above the lake. Streams fall in from either shore 
at short intervals, but throughout the length of the river by far 
the larger contribution comes in from the east. 

From the foot of the lake the George begins a swift descent 
to Ungava, flowing for more than one hundred and thirty miles 
in almost continuous rapids. The slope of the river-bed is in 
many places like that of a steep grade ; and as the water swings 
past the long points of loose rocks which reach out from either 
shore, there is not only the slope down the course of the river, 
but a distinct tilt from one side to the other, as when an engine 
jounds a bend. There are foaming breakers where the water 
flows over its boulder shallows ; but again the river is so smooth 
as to seem motionless, even where the slope downward is dis- 
tinctly perceptible. A few small expansions occur where the 
hills stand further apart, and in places serpent-like sand ridges 
reach in from the hills on the west. River terraces occur, those 
opposite Pyramid Mountain being particularly well marked. 
One of the most characteristic features of the lower river is the 
great wall of packed boulders thrown up by the action of the 
ice during the spring floods. Some of the rocks are of immense 
size, and usually the largest of them are found at the top. The 
wall varies in height from twenty feet at its beginning, thirty 



178 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

miles below the Barren Ground Water, to fifty and sixty feet 
farther down ; and a short distance below our camp of August 
24th a long bank of ice from three to four feet in thickness was 
still clinging to the boulders half way up from the water. (See 
Fig. 4.) 

The country becomes more and more mountainous and 
rugged and barren. The wood growth, which is of spruce and 
larch, with at intervals, a little balsam, is for some distance 
below Barren Ground Water, rather more luxuriant than along 
the lake shores. At best it is but a narrow belt along the water, 
covering the hill sides to a height of perhaps 200 feet, and 
dwindling gadually towards the north till in places it is absent 
altogether. The ridges on either side cross each other almost 
at right angles, turning the river now to the north-east, again 
to the north-west. Down the mountain sides broad bands of 
white show where the waters of numberless lakes and streams 
on the heights come tumbling down to join the river, and again 
a great gap in the solid mountain of rock lets through a rush of 
blue-green foaming water. The mountains on the right bank 
seem more rugged and irregular than those on the left, and 
Bridgman Mountains stand out to the river quite distinct and 
separate, like giant forts. The hills have the characteristic 
Cambrian outline ; and it is the opinion of Mr. Low that this 
formation extends continuously eastwards from the Kaniapiskau 
to the George. 

Below Helen Falls the mountains spread in a wider sweep to 
the sea and the river gradually increases in width to its dis- 
charge into Ungava. Two heavy rapids occur below the limit 
of tidal influence which are obliterated at high water. At the 
foot of the lower of these there is forty feet of tide at the spring. 
In The Narrows beyond the post the outgoing water rushes in 
a long, smooth curve over an enormous boulder lying near the 
centre of the stream, to curl back in a great breaker the roar of 
which can be heard for miles. Ungava Bay has a spring tide of 
fifty feet, which at its rise fills the coves till below The Narrows 
the river is in places seven miles in width. 




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Unknown Labrador . 179 

The game supply of the country traversed we did not find 
abundant, though it should be said no hunting was done off the 
route followed. On the lower Nascaupee our take consisted of 
a few porcupines, rabbits, partridges, and musk-rats. There 
were signs of beaver, marten, and otter, many bear trails, 
though we saw but one bear, a black one, and only once on the 
lower river did we see' fresh caribou tracks. Seals played at the 
foot of Three Mile Rapid, and later we saw a number of them 
in Seal Lake and above Seal Rapid. On the upper river a few 
black ducks, Canada geese, spruce partridges, willow ptarmigan, 
were taken, and two days' journey above Seal Lake our first 
caribou. 

On the west shore of Lake Michikamau, August 8th, we 
came upon the caribou migration, and saw one herd in which 
there were thousands. Though we did not again find them in 
such numbers, yet for fifty miles of our journey they were seen 
iu smaller herds every day, and sometimes many times a day. 
They were in summer dress of pretty brown shading to grey 
and white on the under parts. The antlers were in velvet and 
of immense size, and males and females were already herding 
together. Apparently they had been in occupation of the 
country for some time. From Ptarmigan Point, on Lake 
Michikamau, to the head of Long Lake, on the George River, 
the country was a net work of their trails, in the woodlands and 
bogs cut deep into the soil, on the barren hillsides broad, dark 
bands converging to the crossing-place at the river. North of 
the Height of Land we passed at intervals long piles of whitened 
antlers and along the shore opposite our camp of August 15th, 
a broad band of white caribou hair, four feet above the river, 
told of their crossing and recrossing while shedding the winfer 
coats. 

Only once in passing this part of the country did we find 
trace of their enemy the wolf. Throughout the journey we did 
not see any, but once, while running down the lower George 
River, a lonely cry came down to us from one high up on the 
mountain side. 



i8o Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Through the caribou belt other game was more abundant 
also. Every day mother ducks with their flocks of little ones 
were seen, and a number of geese were taken. Gulls and loons 
were there in numbers, and ptarmigan were very plentiful as 
far as the head of the Barren Ground Water; but beyond, none 
were taken till we reached the post. Along the lower part of 
each of the rivers signs of foxes in large numbers were found, 
and the lemmings on which they feed made us not a little 
trouble. They were about in thousands, and the ground was 
so perforated with their holes as to remind one of a porous 
plaster. 

In the lakes fish seem abundant, though we travelled too 
fast to do much fishing, and the nets were not once in the water. 
In the lakes are the brook trout, ounaniche, and namaycush, 
some white fish, and in the lower George the sea trout and 
salmon. 

The flowers are beautiful, though not so varied as in the 
home country. All along the Nascupee blossoms of the 
Labrador tea filled the air with their fragrance, and pale laurel 
grew in abundance. Now and then we crossed great beds of 
blossoming cloudberries, and everywhere the star flower and 
bunchberry showed their white blossoms. One day, while 
ascending the Wapustan River, Gilbert handed me a dandelion, 
and during the day I saw several of them, but did not again 
find them throughout the journey. On the upper Nascupee 
the dainty pink bells of the low cranberry showed in the carpet 
of glossy green, and near the water, along the low drift shores, 
the pink, almost rose-like, blossom of the dewberry. Violets 
grew on both rivers, but most beautiful of all was the twin 
Hower, which I first found growing on the sandy terraces 
bi^yond the hill country west of Seal Lake. It was the delight- 
ful fragrance which first attracted my attention, and, looking 
down, I saw the long trailing vines from which the pink twin 
hf llfl are lifted on slender, hair-like stems. It grows even more 
alumdantly on the shores of the George River, and at the post 
oi I 'ngava masses of this beautiful flower, so rare and treasured 



^ 



Unknown Labrador i8i 

here, creep along the foot of the mountain, while indoors, in a 
pot on the windowsill, Mrs. Ford, the agent's wife carefully 
treasures two tiny clover plants, in her eagerness almost afraid 
to believe that are really clover. 

During the journey, which occupied the two months from 
June 27th to August 27th the weather was wonderfully fine. 
There was not the continued downpour of rain nor any of the 
extreme heat which told so heavily against Mr. Hubbard in 
1903. We were in camp only eleven days on account of the 
rain, and the highest temperature was 7T°F. in the shade. The 
lowest recorded temperature was SO^'F. which was not, however, 
the minimum reached. As we passed into the higher lake 
country the clear nights were frosty, and on the morning of 
August 10th, at the northern extremity of Lake Michikamau^ 
there was a coating of ice ^ inch thick on a basin of water left 
outside the tent over-night. While descending the upper 
George my duffle was sometimes frozen stiff when I came to put 
it on in the morning; and on August 13th, 14th, and 15th we 
had snow flurries, as well as heavy rain and wind. 

Thunderstorms were rare, and very mild as compared with 
those in the United States. On many days which were very 
beautiful there were passing showers, and Labrador is a Land 
of Rainbows. Nowhere have I ever seen the colours so brilliant 
or so variedly manifested. They did not always appear in the 
form of a bow, and once I saw them lie like a beautiful veil 
along the whole length of Rainbow Hill on the upper Nascaupee. 
There was a wonderful clearness in the atmosphere, which made 
landmarks miles away seem very near, and clothed the far- 
distant hills with colour indescribably beautiful. In the blue 
of the hills and the waters and the sky there was a peculiar 
silveriness, which, with the white of the reindeer moss and the 
dark green of the spruce forest, touched in places with the 
tender green of the white birch and poplar, made a combination 
of colour which I think can scarcely be surpassed in beauty 
anywhere in the world. In a way which I could neither des- 
cribe nor understand, it was comforting. 



i82 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The flies and mosquitoes, for which the country is famed, 
did not wholly fail of accomplishing their dire designs upon 
us ; but their ravages are easily forgotten in the remembrance 
of the beauties of that lone land which can smile with so much 
^ace, even though its mood has sometimes been one of such 
persistent cruelty. 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 183 



AN EXPLORATION OF THE NUN KUN MOUNTAIN 
GROUP AND ITS GLACIERS. 

By William Hunter Workman, M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 

(Addressed to the Society in the Geographical Hall on Tuesday, 
December 3rd, 1907.)* 

The Nun Kun mountain group is situated in Suru, Kashmir, 
between 33° 55' and 34° 6' lat. N., and 76° 2' and 76° 13' 
long. E. The massif to which this name is applied is compara- 
tively small and compact, standing by itself in the midst of a 
network of mountains, occupying practically a square with a 
side of 11 miles. Two parallel spurs of the same fold, connected 
with the Nun Kun by narrow ridges, extend west to 
76° 53' long. E., enclosing a glacier eight miles long. If the 
mountains forming the farther barriers of the glaciers of the 
group be included, the area would be considerably greater. 

The highest central portion is guarded on all sides by a 
multitude of ragged precipitous spurs or buttresses, which run 
down from it to the surrounding valleys, the walls of which 
they help to form. On the north they overhang the Suru river 
in the Rangdum valley, where for eight miles, with the 
opposite mountains, they enclose a gorge through which it 
flows. The summits of these external buttresses are mostly 
pointed or serrated, and attain heights of 18,000 to 20.000 feet. 

The central part of the massif rises 2,000 to 4,000 feet, not 
only above its own lesser peaks, but above all others for scores 
of miles around, the nearest peak that exceeds it in height 
being Nanga Parbat, 120 miles north-west. East, west, and 
south, none of the vast multitude of mountains which it over- 
looks approach it in height. It stands alone, an elevated island 
of rock and ice, towering bold and sharp from an ocean of 

* We are indebted to the Royal Geographical Society for permission to print 
this paper with the map. 



i84 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

surrounding peaks. Although situated in a fairly well-known 
region, the valleys around it having for years been visited by 
sportsmen and somewhat by travellers, its height and its 
inaccessibility have rendered its upper parts hitherto secure 
from intrusion. 

Sportsmen have occasionally entered the Shafat nala, the 
easiest avenue of approach, one having camped for some days 
in 1905 at the site of our base camp, four miles above the 
tongue of the Shafat glacier. In 1902 the Rev. C. E. Barton 
and Dr. A. Neve paid it a brief visit. They camped for 
a night near the same pointy at an altitude of 14,900 feet, and 
the next day went up the Shafat glacier to a height estimated 
by them at about 18,000 feet, returning to the lower camp the 
same day. In 1903, Mr. Sillem, a Dutch traveller, visited the 
Shafat glacier. He is reported by Dr. Neve to have reached 
a height on it of 21,000 feet, but what he is said to have seen 
is rather indefinitely stated, and does not correspond to the 
topographical features at that height. 

The object of the expedition of Mrs. F. Bullock Workman 
and myself in 1906 was the more thorough exploration of this 
region, particularly of the upper unvisited portions. The chief 
village of the several composing what is called Suru, on the 
Suru river, three marches south of Kargil on the Leh route, 
and twelve from Srinagar, was selected as our base, this being 
the nearest village with a lambardar to the Nun Kun. The 
crops having failed the two preceding seasons in Suru and 
Ladakh, no supplies were obtainable there, so we were obliged 
to forward from Srinagar not only supplies for our party, but 
also some 16,000 lbs. of grain for our coolies, to transport which 
required 243 coolies and 60 ponies. On June 24 we reached 
Suru, accompanied by the guide, Cyprien Savoye, six Italian 
porters, and five servants. 

Just south of Suru, the Suru valley, which up to this point 
runs south from Kargil, makes a wide bend around the 
extremity of a high spur, and from Purkutse, the last village 
where any cultivation is seen, stretches east for 23 miles, under 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 185 

the name of the Upper Sum or Rangdum valley. It resembles 
Ladakh valleys, being mostly desert with some scanty vegeta- 
tion. It cannot boast of a single tree, but the swamp land 
along the river is covered with bush-growth from 2 to 6 feet 
high. For eight miles from Purkutse it consists of a gorge 
just wide enough for the passage of the here turbulent Sum 
river, directly over which, on the south, rise the frowning spires 
of the Nun Kun massif, 11,500 feet above, sending down a 
number of short glaciers, which do not reach the valley-bed, 
and a larger one, the Ganri, later to be described. It then 
opens out with an average width of about one mile to its end, 
where it expands into an amphitheatre, into which four valleys 
open. 

On July 3rd we reached Gulmatunga, one march above 
Purkutse, the site of a deserted village, on the north side of the 
unbridged Sum river, opposite which the Shafat nala, which 
was our first objective, enters the Rangdum. To reach this it 
was necessary to cross the river, which early in July is usually 
fordable at this point, but we found the water so high that the 
only way to get over was by swimming, as impossible a feat for 
our loaded caravan as flying would have been. The weather 
during the latter half of June had been fine and unusually 
warm. Since leaving Dras, at elevations from 10,000 to 12,000 
feet, we had marched in such sun-maxima as 191°, 199°, 203°, 
196°, 200°, 206°, 204-5°, and 205° Fahr. The great heat had 
melted the snow on the glaciers rapidly, and we had found all 
glacier-fed streams on our route greatly swollen and turbid, 
some of them being impassable after twelve o'clock. The 
Sum river was no exception. Its volume was much increased^ 
and its mud-laden water of a dark slate colour. We camped, 
hoping to get across early in the morning, but the water did 
not fall sufficiently to make the river fordable. We were 
therefore obliged to follow it up for 16 miles to the hamlet 
of Tazi Tonzas, where it divides into several branches. Here, 
between 8 and 10 a.m., we made the passage of five small 
branches, and of the 200-feet-wide main branch, though the 



i86 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

water of the last was waist-high and flowing with a rapid 
current, besides being ice-cold, so that the men had to wade 
through it in squads, holding on to one another for security. 
We then descended the valley again, through swamps and over 
boulder-strewn tali, till the Shaf at nala was reached after four 
days of extra marching. 

The Shafat nala runs from the Rangdum valley, a little 
west of south, straight away along the eastern edge of the 
Nun Kun for 9 miles to the base of an impressive snow 
mountain marked Z 1 on the Indian Survey map, seen through 
the nala from Gulmatunga towering above its upper end. 
The nala is enclosed on both sides by precipitous mountain 
walls. For some distance above its mouth its bed consists of 
rolling hillocks, sparsely covered with vegetation. A large 
colony of marmots had appropriated these as a site for a 
subterranean city, and their burrows pierced the ground at 
short intervals in all directions. These marmots were evidently 
social in their habits, and exchanged frequent visits, as was 
shown by footpaths as distinct and well-trodden as those made 
by man, running between the different burrows and forming a 
network over the whole surface. Were this place of sufiScient 
importance to have a name, it might appropriately be called 
Marmotville. Beyond this for two miles the nala ascends 
gently in swampy meadows covered with grass and bushes 
resembling dwarf-willows, interspersed with stony reaches, and 
intersected by numerous swiftly-flowing streams. 

About three miles above the lower end of the nala the 
tongue of the Shafat glacier is met with, an irregular mass 
of ice stretching entirely across the nala, from 80 to 100 feet 
high, heavily covered with red granite detritus, which gives it 
the appearance of a large terminal moraine. The valley bed 
immediately in front of it, though somewhat strewn with small 
stones, has no terminal moraines to indicate that, in recent 
times, the glacier has extended lower down than at present, 
to which fact the grass-covered alluvium existing almost at the 
edge of the tongue also testifies. Two good-sized streams issue. 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 187 

one on each side of the tongne, from deep gullies extending 
half a mile or more up the glacier. For the next two miles the 
glacier consists of a chaotic combination of high ridges, deep 
ravines with perpendicular walls, hillocks, and depressions, 
forming a labyrinth as difficult to traverse as could well be 
found. This part has no well-marked moraines, either lateral 
or median, though it is covered with an enormous amount of 
detritus. Its banks on both sides consist of steep mountain 
slopes greatly torn and eroded by ice and water. 

The upper end of this portion ceases abruptly with a sharp 
sweep to the south-west, below which a lower surface of smooth 
white ice about half a mile wide begins, occupying the eastern 
side of the nala, and extending to the base of Zl, four miles 
distant. This had few crevasses, but it was covered with small 
pockets, filled with crystal water, from a few inches to 2 feet 
in diameter, and from 6 inches to 2 feet deep, at the bottom of 
which lay either flat stones or a thin layer of silt, which, by 
absorbing and transmitting the heat of the sun, had caused the 
ice beneath them to melt and form the pockets. Near the 
junction of the white ice with the lower portion were a number 
of glacial tables, some of them of large size, supported on ice 
pedestals from 3 to 6 feet high. 

Adjoining the white ice on the west, but entirely distinct 
from it both in character and origin, though equally a part of 
the glacier, runs another section parallel with and overtopping 
the white one by 60 to 80 feet. This section, about a quarter 
of a mile wide, fills the remainder of the glacial bed. It is 
greatly broken and crevassed, and thickly covered with reddish 
granite detritus. The final destination of this section affords 
an interesting example of the application of glacial force. On 
its west side, about 1 mile above the lower end of the white 
section, a branch glacier enters. This branch is short, not 
over 2^ miles in length, and perhaps half a mile wide, but, 
coming down from the sides of two peaks, one of them of over 
23,000 feet, with a fall of 9,000 feet, it presses with tremendous 
iorce upon the Shafat glacier. As a result, the red section is 



i88 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

crowded bodily over to the east side of the glacial bed, cutting 
across the white section, forming a barrier to its further 
progress, and literally swallowing it up. The red portion then 
expands so as to fill the whole glacial bed, three-quarters of a 
mile wide, and forms the chaotic lowest two miles of the 
glacier already described. 

The very abundant detritus brought down by the branch 
glacier is black. This crowds with the ice of the branch into 
the space from which the red section has been pushed, and can 
be traced downward for about a mile. Opposite the point of 
entrance a large hillock of black material presses well into the 
red section, rising high above the surrounding level. The 
eastern edge of the white section bears along a smaller black 
moraine, which is also swallowed up by the red portion at their 
point of contact. 

(Opposite Zl the Shafat glacier, which to this point ascends 
with a moderate gradient south 23° W., turns around the end 
of a spur from the Nun Kun, and pursues a course west 10** S. 
to a ridge three miles above, descending from the central one 
of the row of five southern Nun Kun peaks across the slope to 
meet an arete projecting from Zl. This ridge rises only 
slightly above the glacial surface, but it forms a line of 
demarcation, on the north side, between the snows, which, 
coming from three of the Nun Kun peaks, feed the Shafat 
glacier, and those from the remaining two which fall to the 
Fariabad nala ; and on the south, between those from the whole 
front of Zl, and those from it west of the arete, which also fall 
to the Fariabad nala. The altitude of this ridge at a quarter 
of a mile from the wall of Z 1 is 16,911 feet. Thence it rises 
continuously till it ends in a peak of over 21,000 feet. 

The reservoir of the Shafat glacier differs from those of the 
ordinary type, in that it is composed of two lateral parts or 
wings, over two miles distant from each other, the northern 
wing consisting of the slopes of the Nun Kun massif, and the 
southern of those of Z 1, the snows from both of which descend 
east of the boundary ridge into the intermediate depression. 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 189 

meeting near its middle line to form the glacier. The glacier 
is therefore destitute of a typical head or end basin enclosed 
by mountains on the west. 

Its width just above the bend is about a mile, but below the 
ridge it widens to more than two miles, ascending sharply and 
greatly broken to the Nun Kun. The ice from the south or Z 1 
wing is remarkably free from detritus, but that from the 
Nun Kun wing bears a considerable quantity in detached 
masses^ which finally becomes concentrated in the red western 
section already described. 

The glacier coming from the two remaining southern Nun 
Kun peaks, named by us the Fariabad glacier, descends from 
north to south across the upper end of and at right angles to 
the Shafat, contributing to the latter a small amount of ice 
through an opening in the dividing ridge near its centre. 

We established a base camp on the spur around which the 
glacier turns, about 400 feet above the latter at an altitude of 
15,100 feet. It commanded a view of a second tributary 
entering the Shafat from the east in an impressive ice-fall, and 
of the steep front of the splendid peak Z 1, over 22,000 feet in 
height, clad in a shaggy mail of ice, portions of which every 
now and again broke away and plunged down to the glacier in 
resounding avalanches. After the Nun Kun massif Z 1 is the 
highest and most imposing mountain in the region. 

While wood and supplies were being collected at this camp, 
we made reconnaissances of the ice-fall opposite, ascending 
the lower half of it, and of the higher parts of the Shafat 
glacier on both sides to heights of about 18,000 feet, from 
which an excellent idea of the glacier and its basin was 
obtained; but from no point could we see the conformation of 
the highest portion of the Nun Kun massif lying behind the 
five southern peaks crowning the wall above, nor could the 
relation of the highest western peak to its neighbours be 
determined, nor were the two northern peaks next in altitude 
to the highest visible, except the very apex of the north-easterly 
one from the ice-fall under Z 1. 



igo Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Large portions of the w^y^-covered surface of the Shafat 
glacier, from 16,000 to 18,500 feet, were thickly strewn with 
nieves penitentes. This was the first time we had met with them 
in five seasons of Himalayan exploration, and I am not aware 
that their existence in Himalaya has been mentioned by any 
other observer. For a time they were regarded as peculiar to 
the Andes, having been observed only by explorers of that 
chain, until Hans Meyer, and after him C. tJhlig, discovered 
them on Kilimandjai*o. In the Andes they have been found 
from the equator to 35° 4' lat. S., while those seen by us 
existed from 33° 57' to 33° 59' lat. N. 

They varied in height from 8 inches to 3 feet, and had the 
shape of wedges or pyramids flattened at the sides with curling 
fluted crests, all turned in the same direction. 

They were arranged in parallel lines running diagonally to 
the axis of the glacier, the long diameter of each nieve being 
parallel to the long diameters of others in the system and 
coincident with the direction of the lines. They were 
composed of granular snow, hard frozen in the morning, but 
softening more or less under the heat of the sun. No ice was 
found in them. The central portion of each, even when 
softened by the sun, was much denser than the outer surface 
or the surrounding nSvCy offering even in the smallest decided 
resistance to the thrust of an ice-axe, while the two latter could 
often be scraped away with the fingers. The nSvi on which 
they stood sloped at angles of 30° to 40°. 

As this was the only one of many Himalayan glaciers we 
have explored presenting this phenomenon, attention was 
directed to the conditions obtaining on it as furnishing a clue 
to the mode of formation of the nieves. As already stated, this 
glacier is peculiar in that it is acephalous, being entirely open 
at its upper western end and fully exposed to the prevailing 
west winds, which sweep down its course with considerable 
force even in fair weather, and during storms must attain a 
high velocity. Another important condition not seen by us on 
other glaciers was the long-continued fine weather. During 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers ipx 

our Baltistan expeditions fine weather was the exception, 
almost daily snowstorms being the rule; but here, from early 
in June till our departure on August 9, the weather was 
continuously pleasant, only one slight squall being noted. In 
ascending the glacier, and on the mountains above, even to 
over 21,000 feet, no new snow was met with. To these two 
conditions the formation of the nieves penitentes here seen may 
be referred. 

It is a matter of common observation that, when any object 
lies upon a glacier which protects the snow or ice beneath it 
from the sun's heat, or a condition exists that offers resistance 
to the same, the surrounding surface melts away, leaving an 
elevation of snow or ice in such place. When a rock rests on 
a glacier, a glacial table supported on an ice pedestal may 
result. Ice pyramids are sometimes seen capped with mud or 
fine detritus. When a portion of a glacial surface becomes 
more dense than that around it, the softer portions melt away, 
leaving the denser standing as an upward projection. 

This premised, the development of these nieves may be read 
as follows : — During the winter and spring storms the wind, 
sweeping down the glacier, drifted the loose snow into waves 
and ridges. These, particularly the latter, were formed 
parallel to one another, with a direction more or less transverse 
to the axis of the glacier. The force of the wind packed 
the snow composing the ridges, so that it became much denser 
than that in the hollows between them. Wind is the only 
natural force conceivable that could have caused ridges and 
wavy condensations of snow in the positions occupied by the 
nieves, upon fairly smooth slopes not exposed to avalanches and 
above the line of rain. This action of the wind being granted, 
it follows that the formation of waves and ridges of condensed 
snow was the first step in the process of development. 

Then came the prolonged period of fine weather, when no 
new snow fell to cover the roughened glacial surface, when the 
latter was exposed during the long days of June and July to 
the full action of the sun, burning with a heat of 170** to 



Z92 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

206° Fahr. and over. As melting proceeded the softer snow 
of the hollows yielded to a greater degree than the harder 
snow of the ridges, thus accentuating the difference of level 
between the two, and the ridges themselves were sculptured 
out, the densest and most resistant parts remaining as apices, 
till, finally, the flattened pyramids known as nieves penitentes 
were fully formed. 

The fact that the discrete pyramids, many of them with 
the ends of their elongated bases touching the similar ends of 
adjacent ones, stood in lines parallel to other lines, indicates 
(1) that they were formed out of pre-existing ridges or linear 
wavelets, and (2) that the condensation of snow in the ridges 
was not equally great at all points, but occurred in foci, the 
crests of which were a little distance apart, each crest, as 
melting proceeded, forming the apex of a nieve. 

The glacier falls from west to east, east 10° N., and the line 
of union of its north and south slopes corresponds with its 
axis. The direction of the longer diameters of the nieves and 
of the lines of which they formed a part was on the north 
slopes, east 20° S., whilst that of those on the south slopes was 
north 45° E. The former cut the glacial axis at an angle of 
30°, and the latter at one of 35°. The linear rows of nieves 
on the two slopes were thus inclined to one another at an angle 
of 65°. From this it appears that the direction of the primary 
ridges was determined by the direction of the slopes on which 
they were formed, the wind remaining constant to both. The 
apices of the nieves on both slopes curved over more or less, 
giving the pyramids a convex contour on one face and a concave 
one on the opposite. These, as well as the overhanging hoods, 
with which many of them were crowned, all pointed in the 
same direction, i.e., towards the east, down the glacier, away 
from the prevailing west wind, which never varied during the 
three weeks we were on this glacier. Both the curving apices 
and the hoods were probably due to the cornices formed by the 
wind along the crests of the primary ridges, which, being 
denser, offered greater resistance to the sun's heat than the 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 193 

snow immediately under them, and persisted as overhanging 
parts of the nieve. It may be noted that nieves were found 
only above the line where freezing occurs at night, i.e., above 
16,000 feet, which circumstance may be a contributory factor 
to their development or modelling. 

From the foregoing, the conclusion may be drawn that the 
formation of nieves penitenteSy certainly of such as were 
here seen, depends on two conditions : (1) the existence of a 
strong wind blowing constantly from the same direction, 
driving the snow into wavelets and ridges usually parallel to 
one another, and condensing it into compact masses of foci a 
little removed from one another: and (2) a prolonged period of 
fine weather following, during which the softer portions are 
melted away by the sun's heat, both direct and reflected, 
leaving the denser parts standing in the well-known shapes. 
In stormy seasons the ridges, after being formed, would be 
protected from the sun's action by new snow under which they 
would be buried, and no nieves would be developed. 

Six miles west of the upper end of the Shaf at glacier stands 
a hitherto unnamed summit of 19,080 feet, called by us Mount 
Nieves Penitentes, and two miles north of it another of 20,571 
feet, D 41. First ascents of both of these were made by us. 
The last 300 feet in altitude of the rounded top of the former 
as well as others of its upper surfaces were thickly covered with 
nieves penitentes of the same character as, but larger than, 
those on the Shafat glacier. Above 19,000 feet the final slants 
of D41 rise at angles of 60° to 70°. These, facing south, but 
fully exposed to the west wind, bristled in every part quite to 
the summit, with nieves rising one above another in unbroken 
succession. These were the largest of all, rose from an ice 
basis, and themselves consisted of ice. In connection with the 
statement of Prof. Hauthal, that nieves penitentes in the Andes 
occur exclusively in sheltered places, it is interesting to note 
that those observed by us at three different points in Himalaya 
occurred on surfaces fully exposed to wind, that the higher and 
more exposed the surface the larger were the nieves, and that 



194 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

the largest, most perfectly developed, and apparently the most 
durable of all, were found at the highest altitude, from 19,000 
to 20,571 feet, where the wind would naturally be the strongest. 
On the Barmal glacier, springing from the two last-mentioned 
peaks and a wall connecting them and protected by precipitous 
mountains, and in the Nun Kun basin at an altitude of 21,000 
feet, Covered with snow and also much enclosed, no nieves were 
seen. Sir Martin Conway, from his observations of nieves 
penitentes on Aconcagua (see " Aconcagua and Terra del 
Fuego") concludes they are carved by solar radiation out of 
old avalanche beds, wind having nothing to do with their 
origin. Nieves formed in this manner would be found only on 
circumscribed areas in positions, which avalanche beds might 
occupy, and not widely distributed over glacial surface and on 
mountain sides and tops, as in case of those seen by us, where 
there could be no question of avalanche beds. The conditions 
under which nieves have been observed have evidently differed 
somewhat in different places. 

Prof. Hauthal also regards the sun as the sole agent in 
the formation of nieves. This hypothesis fails to explain 
satisfactorily the parallelism of the lines in which the nieves 
stand, as well as the implied selective power of the sun in 
melting away some portions of a glacial surface and leaving 
others intact, both of which can be accounted for by the known 
action of wind in causing parallel wavelets and ridges and 
condensing the snow in them. 

Gussfeldt, one of the early observers of Andean nieves, is 
one of the few who recognize the agency of wind in the first 
stage of their development, but he does not mention the 
causation by it of foci of condensation that offer resistance to 
the sun's heat, which I regard as an essential factor in the 
process. 

While the conclusions above stated appear to me to be the 
only ones consistent with existing conditions that will explain 
the formation of the nieves observed by me, I am quite willing^ 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 195 

to grant that condensation of snow in foci may, in certain cases, 
be caused by other agents than wind. 

The experience of four previous expeditions having demon- 
strated that coolies cannot be depended on to go much above 
points where rocks exist for shelter at night and water is to be 
had, the plan was adopted, with a view to exploring the higher 
parts of the Nun Eun, of taking out trained European porters 
to carry light camp outfit to altitudes above those which can 
be reached by coolies. Six porters besides the guide, who also 
agreed to carry a load when necessary, were judged sufficient 
for our purpose, and this number had accordingly been brought 
with us. 

A reconnaissance disclosed a rock promontory projecting 
into the ice about 2,500 feet above our base camp, with screes 
beneath it, where coolies could pass the night ; and about 2,200 
feet above that, among the ice-falls at the base of a snow-needle, 
a small sloping snow plateau, which the coolies, by starting 
early from their night bivouac, could reach in time to return 
to the latter the same day. This was the highest point at 
which they would be available. Basing our plan of attack on 
the upper portion of the massif on the existence of these two 
yieds d, terre, a good supply of wood and food was forwarded 
to the promontory, and two days later four porters with coolies 
were sent ahead with their own and our extra outfit, with 
orders to remain overnight at the promontory, move up next 
morning with the coolies to the plateau, and make a second 
camp there, sending the coolies back to us. From here they 
were to push on and establish a third camp with extra 
Mummery tents at the highest available point, and then return 
to and await us at the second camp. 

On July 25, Mrs. Bullock Workman, myself, Savoye, and 
two porters, with fifteen coolies, followed, climbing at first over 
great moraine masses, and later over tumbled and crevassed 
slopes of ice and snow lying between the giant rock-ribs 
descending from the peaks above. We saw many nieves 
penitentes, some of them of large size. We camped on snow 



196 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

just above the base of the promontory at an elevation of 17,657 
feet. The minimum night temperature was 17° Fahr. The 
next morning we continued on up still wilder ice-slopes, steep 
and fatiguing, greatly broken, and seamed with wide blue chasms 
lined with icicles, to the second camp, where the four porters 
were waiting. This camp stood at 19,900 feet on a small 
sloping surface at the base of a ragged wall, from which at 
intervals great icicles were broken away by the wind and 
hurled down in dangerous proximity to the tents. Two 
hundred feet distant below the camp a wide bergschrund 
yawned. The coolies marched well to this point, though some 
of them were sick at the last, and nearly all complained of 
headache. They were allowed to return to the lower camp on 
arrival. The minimum temperature here was also 17° Fahr. 
On our return it was 10° Fahr. The wind blew down upon us 
in strong gusts the whole night, shaking the tents so that we 
feared we should be carried down into the bergschrund. This, 
with the altitude, the eflfect of which all felt decidedly, 
effectually prevented sleep. 

From here the whole party of nine started upward together. 
The only possible route led up the steep face of the ice-wall, 
and above it involved the traverse of a long, sharply-inclined, 
curving ice-slope covered with snow. Had the passage of our 
caravan started an avalanche, as we feared might occur, we 
should have been carried down over the wall into an abyss of 
unknown depth running along its whole base. Two weeks later, 
when the snow had melted or become converted into ice, this 
slope would have been too dangerous to attempt. Its top lies 
at an altitude of about 21,000 feet, at the base of a beautiful 
snow-needle some 800 feet higher, which crowns the extremity 
of a short arete projecting from the highest Nun Kun peak. 
Up to this point we had seen nothing of the massif except the 
slopes facing the Shafat glacier. On reaching the crest we 
found we were standing, not on a col between the first and 
second, of a line of peaks, as the Survey map and previous 
statements had led us to expect, but just above the brow of a 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 197 

glacier emerging from a great oblong snow-plateau or basin, 
about 3 by 1^ miles, enclosed by six great and one smaller peak, 
the highest of which, 23,447 feet, rises up by itself steeply from 
the plateau unconnected by cols with any of the others. 
Descending into this basin, we reached the third snow camp, 
which had been established at an altitude of 20,632 feet. The 
minimum temperature here was 4"" Fahr. 

Reconnaissance from this and the preceding camp showed 
the ascent of the highest peak to be impracticable from this 
plateau, certainly for our party, as it could be assailed only at 
one point, above which it would be necessary to camp, the aretes 
leading to which are so steep that no loaded porter could 
possibly surmount them, and, if passable at all, would tax the 
powers of an unloaded expert to the utmost. We therefore 
moved the camp the next morning three miles further to the 
upper end of the plateau, at the base of the peak next in 
height, which promised better conditions. Here our fourth 
camp was pitched at an altitude of 21,300 feet. The porters 
could only bring half the necessary kit at one time, so they 
and the guide descended to the third camp for the rest, 
intending to return that afternoon. But a dense mist after 
midday and the softening of the snow by the great heat 
prevented their return, so that Mrs. Bullock Workman and 
myself were left to pass the night alone in the almost terrifying 
silence and loneliness of this untrodden solitude of snow. 

We did not sleep. As I have found before under similar 
circumstances, the absolute silence that reigned during the 
watches of the night, in the absence of sleep, proved almost as 
nerve-wearing as an excess of noise. In such a situation one 
has the feeling of having completely lost touch with the 
material world, and the imagination, uncontrolled by the 
suggestions of ordinary sounds, runs riot among fancies and 
possibilities neither wholly pleasing nor reassuring. 

The afternoon was windless and oppressively hot. The sun 
shone through the drifting mist with a sickly light, but with a 
heat that sent the mercury in the solar thermometer to 19-r 



198 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Fahr. at two o'clock, and to 142^rahr. at 3.30 o'clock. The 
heat was equally unbearable within and without the tents, and 
all the harder to endure because of the mist, which, while 
shutting out all view of the world around, shut in the heat, so 
that it became a palpable entity penetrating to every part of 
the system with depressing effect. At sunset the tempera- 
ture fell to freezing, and an hour later to lO^Fahr., reaching a 
minimum of — 4° before morning, a difference of 197°. 

At daylight, Savoye and two porters arrived, their faces 
blue with cold and their moustaches covered with ice. Having 
drawn on our frozen boots, we set out with them to ascend the 
steep ice-covered flank of the mountain above, its lower half 
broken into ice-falls,where almost every step had to be cut. 
At an altitude of 22,720 feet, as the mists which almost daily 
obscured the mountain tops towards noon were gathering, I 
stopped with one porter to photograph, while the latter were 
yet visible, and Mrs. Bullock Workman went on with the other 
two to complete the ascent, attaining an altitude of 23,300 feet. 
Camp was reached at 7 p.m. The temperature fell that night 
to — e^Fahr. 

I have stated the altitude of our highest camp at 21,300 
feet. This was measured by hyposometric readings compared 
with simultaneous ones at the lower Government stations of 
Dras, 34 miles distant, where readings were taken for us three 
times daily during our absence. The same readings, calculated 
by Airy's table, make its altitude 21,600 feet. The variation 
being so great, and Airy's table differing from others in placing 
sea-level at 31 inches and giving relatively higher altitudes for 
very low pressures, the results of calculations by it have not 
been used. If Airy's table can claim greater accuracy than the 
older tables, then the altitude in question must be regarded as 
21,600 feet. In either case this camp is of importance prac- 
tically, as I hope presently to show, as representing, I believe, 
the highest point to which, up to date, November, 1907, tents 
have been taken and occupied, and the highest measured point 
at which mountaineers have passed the night. Two parties 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 199 

have recently claimed to have bivouacked in the open without 
tents at greater altitudes, Mr. Reginald Bankin on his descent 
irom Aconcagua being overtaken by darkness at an elevation 
he states as 22,000 feet, and Dr. Longstaff, with guide and 
porter, under similar circumstances, having spent a night in 
the snow at what he "thinks" was 23,000 feet. From their 
published accounts it appears that in neither case was the 
altitude mentioned determined by any kind of measurement. 

It has been asserted several times within the past year that 
Mr. W. H. Johnson, in the employ of the Indian Survey 
camped in 1865 in the Kiiin Lain at an altitude of 22,000 feet. 
I have been unable to find, in Mr. Johnson's account of his 
work in the " Synoptical," Vol. 7, of the Indian Survey, and in 
the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, any mention of 
such a camp. If any camp, which Mr. Johnson thought 
approached this altitude, was made, it must have been on the 
peak E 61, the only peak in the region exceeding 22,000 feet, 
which was measured in 1862 by a Survey employe and its 
height given as 23,890 feet. This measurement was unchecked, 
and the details of it were so meagre that the Survey did not 
endorse it, expressly stating that, for reasons given, they con- 
sidered it too high — as I have been credibly informed, probably 
1,000 feet or more too high. Any camp, therefore, that Mr. 
Johnson may have made on this mountain, the altitude of 
which he would naturally estimate with reference to the 
assigned height of the mountain itself, would have to be 
lowered by the same amount, which would bring it in any case 
below the altitude of our recent highest camps. 

In order to place mountaineering on a scientific basis, 
among other things, the necessity of the measurement of alti- 
tudes reached, by one of the methods recognized as fairly 
reliable, is obvious, since such measurement alone defines with 
approximate exactness the height at which observed altitude 
phenomena may occur, and without it observations lose an 
important part of their value. In this connection I would call 
your attention to some of the subjective experiences, particu- 



200 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

larly at night, of the nine Europeans engaged on this occasion, 
not merely in high climbing but in carrying loads, making and 
occupying camps measured at 19,900, 20,632, and 21,300* feet 
(by Airy's table 20,261, 21,093, and 21,600 feet). 

Only one of the party — a porter — ^suffered from mountain 
sickness. Although complaining of headache and weakness at 
the third camp (20,632 feet), he started to go to the fourth with 
a light load of instruments, but was unable to keep up with the 
rest of us and soon fell behind, showing unmistakable signs of 
mountain sickness. Before reaching an altitude of 21,000 feet, 
though naturally a strong and healthy man, he collapsed 
entirely and became helpless. He complained of loss of sensa- 
tion in his hands. His woollen mittens being drawn off, his 
fingers were found white and stiff, and, if not already frost- 
bitten, on the point of becoming so. Vigorous rubbing and 
pounding of his hands finally restored circulation, when he was 
sent down to the third camp. The fact that his hands, even 
when protected by thick woollen mittens, were brought by the 
cold to the verge of frost-bite, while my own, without any 
coveiing, were comfortably warm, shows how profoundly the 
circulation and vitality are prostrated by mountain sickness,, 
and how dangerous it is for one suffering from this malady to be 
exposed to the cold of high altitudes. 

At the second camp, 19,900 feet, and above, three suffered 
with severe headache, pain in the back and lower limbs, especi- 
ally at night, and a fourth with headache at night ; while three 
were troubled with cough without discoverable pharyngitis or 
bronchitis, which promptly disappeared in two cases on des- 
cending to the base camp, but persisted for a week in the third. 
These symptoms did not incapacitate any one, except the porter 
who was ill, from accomplishing the daily work. 

Every one, as was to be expected, felt the effect of altitude 
on the respiration, though some to a greater extent than others. 
This, as usual, manifested itself by shortness of breath and pant- 
ing on slight exertion. In the erect positions, when resting, the 
respiratory disturbance was not so noticeable, being marked 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 201 

only on movement, but at night on lying down it became more 
urgent, being accompanied by a feeling of oppression, for the 
relief of which a number of deep inspirations were necessary. 
The frequent repetition of these wearied the respiratory muscles 
and even became painful. This constant gasping for breath 
interfered with sleep, no matter how tired one might be, and if, 
at last, after a long period of prostrating wakefulness, one did 
doze for a moment, one would immediately start up with frantic 
efforts to obtain sufficient oxygen to relieve the stifling sensa- 
tion which threatened to terminate one's existence. During 
the five nights at our three highest camps no one obtained more 
than a few snatches of sleep, and four, of whom I was one, prac- 
tically none at all. Those nights are not easily forgotten, 
when one lay sleepless on the snow, in the cold, and silence, and 
darkness, struggling for breath, and counting the slowly 
dragging hours, with a feeling that the strain could not be 
endured till daylight. It is scarcely necessary to say that even 
the strongest could not hold out for long against the depressing 
influence of loss of sleep, combined with the lowering of vital 
energy due to the scarcity of oxygen at these high altitudes. 
We were conscious of a distinct decline in strength on the last 
two days, and after six consecutive days of hard work and five 
sleepless nights every one felt an irresistable desire to relieve 
the tension by a descent to a lower level. 

I have elsewhere, in connection with our highest camp in 
the Chogo Lungma region, at 19,358 feet, where five Europeans 
were affected in a similar manner during two nights, suggested 
the possibility that, in attempts on the highest Himalayan 
summits, where camps would have to be made at from 23,000 
to over 27,000 feet, insomnia alone might prevent success. 
This corroborative experience of nine active mountaineers at 
camps approximately 550, 1,300, and 2,000 feet higher than 
that above mentioned, at all of which respiratory disturbance 
and insomnia were distinctly more pronounced, being most 
marked at the highest, appears to me now to justify the opinion 
that insomnia will be found to be an adverse factor in high 



202 Journal of the Manchester Gec^japhical Society 

mountain work no less formidable than cold, deficiency of 
oxygen, and weather, and much more so than mountain sick- 
ness, inasmuch as it appears likely to affect a larger number 
of climbers. 

Our primus stoves and hypsometer lamps felt the altitude 
quite as much as we. The alcohol in the lighting cups of the 
former would not burn until the cups had been heated by the 
application of half a dozen burning matches, and the petroleum 
gas issuing from the burners was only partially consumed when 
saucepans were placed at the ordinary distance above the 
latter, the rest escaping in smoky ill-smelling fumes. To 
insure complete combustion it was necessary to give the flame 
its full height so that the air could have access to it from every 
point. With this precaution petroleum in a primus stove 
makes a more efficient fuel and generates a much greater heat 
at high altitudes than alcohol used in any apparatus I have 
seen. The wicks of the hypsometer lamps were also lighted 
with difficulty, two or three matches in succession being 
required, and when they were lighted placing the lamps in the 
metal jackets promptly extinguished the flame. Having had 
the same experience previously, we had had the burning-tubes 
replaced by new ones of double the diameter, but this did not 
help the matter. The ordinary jacket does not admit sufficient 
oxygen to insure combustion at high altitudes. The lower 
half of the jacket, at least, should be made of wire-gauze so as 
to admit all the air possible. 

We found the low temperature, — 4® and — ^6^Fahr., and 
even that of 17° and lO^'Fahr., with strong wind, trying, at 
night. Arctic explorers endure temperatures much lower than 
these without difficulty, but their work lies near sea-level, 
where the atmospheric pressure is more than double that at 
21,000 feet, and they can encase themselves in furs without 
suffering from the weight. There the air also contains suffi- 
cient oxygen to enable them to breathe freely under any degree 
of exertion, and to sleep soundly, thus sustaining the bodily 
heat and vital forces at a normal limit, so that they can offer 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 203 

a maximum power of resistance to cold. But at high altitudes, 
where vitality has been lowered by hard work, loss of sleep, 
and deficient oxygenation, where only a closely calculated 
minimum of clothing and bedding can be carried, an amount 
really insufficient to protect one against cold, a temperature of 
zero means a good deal more than it does to the Arctic explorer. 
The mountaineer at high altitudes is called upon to endure 
Arctic conditions without the means of protection available to 
the Arctic explorer. All our party, in addition to flannel-lined 
Mummery tents, with ground-sheets sewn in, were provided 
with rubber ground-sheets and well-padded eider sleeping 
sacks, enclosed in outer ones of camel-hair or army blankets; 
but these were inadequate to prevent us, even when wearing 
our thickest clothing besides, from feeling the cold sensibly at 
night at the second camp, and to a much greater degree at the 
two highest camps. Two thousand feet higher, where the cold 
would be considerably greater, we should probably have 
suffered more severely. 

An effect of altitude upon the mind, which was noticeable 
here, as it has been elsewhere above 18,000 or 19,000 feet, 
deserves mention. Owing, perhaps, to a general loss of energy 
and to the disturbance of respiration and circulation incident 
to even moderate exertion, a mental condition of irresolution 
and disinclination to effort supervenes. The simplest actions 
assume formidable proportions, and even photography, which 
one recognizes as of the highest importance and which at 
ordinary altitudes is not a difficult process, becomes a bugbear ; 
while the ascent of a peak, a really arduous undertaking at high 
altitudes, looms up as an almost impossible proposition. One 
has, therefore, often to call the will into play to its utmost 
power to force one's self to carry out what has been proposed. 
Those who are destined to raise the mountaineering altitude 
record much higher than it now stands will undoubtedly be 
persons of strong will and self-control. 

Another point of interest is, that the guide and porters were 
able to carry loads of 40 lbs. to an altitude of 20,300 feet. The 



204 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

gradients, except that oi the ice-wall above the second camp, 
were not steep, and the last two marches upward were only 
about three hours ; but to carry loads of 40 lbs. up inclines of 
25° to 35° in snow ankle-deep, at that altitude, requires strength 
and endurance. How much higher they could have gone, or 
up how much sharper slopes, I will not venture an opinion. 
Savoye expressed grave doubts whether they could carry the 
same loads up much steeper gradients than were encountered, 
for at altitudes like these the difficulty of carrying a given load 
increases enormously with a comparatively slight increase in 
gradient. These men were certainly more efficient than coolies, 
and with their aid we were able to make two camps at altitudes 
which could not have been reached with coolies. The question 
to what height trained mountaineers will be able to carry outfit 
requisite to camping must be left to the future to decide. With 
the various obstacles to high climbing more accentuated in 
proportion to altitude, it seems certain that loads will have to 
be reduced as altitude increases, until a limit will at last be 
reached where not enough can be carried to support life and 
protect the mountaineer against cold and weather. That limit 
is likely, I fancyj to be found considerably below heights at 
which camps will have to be made to render the highest 
summits accessible. 

One of the most interesting features of the Nun Kun is 
the plateau, or snow-basin, where we camped, which, enclosed 
by its circlet of seven glittering peaks, sits like a diadem on the ' 
brow of the lofty massif which it crowns. Its surface is undu- 
lating, being depressed in the centre, but rising towards the 
bases of the peaks, where it shades off into the mountain slopes. 
The altitude of its highest part, which is at the north-east and 
beneath the second highest peak, is 21,600 feet. Thence is 
slopes away to the south-west to abut 20,300 feet at the Ganri 
outlet under the highest peak. Its shape is oblong, its long 
diameter running north-east and south-west being 3 to 3^ miles, 
and its conjugate diameter about 1^ mile. The peaks rise 
sharply from it, and descend more sharply, largely in perpendi- 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 205 

cular precipices, on the outer side. The four north-east peaks 
are connected by rock and snow saddles. The other three, 
including the highest at the south-west end, stand alone, rising 
directly from level ice. Around the bases of these three the 
basin has four outlets, by which its snows escape to form the 
ultimate source of the three principal glaciers of the massif, 
one stream descending north-west between the highest peak 
and the one next north-east to make one head of the Ganri 
glacier, two others to the south to feed the short but broad 
Fariabad glacier, and the fourth also to the south, to contribute 
to the north reservoir of the Shafat glacier. It is very unusual 
for three glaciers to originate in a single basin. 

The Ganri glacier has two reservoirs, or heads, the larger 
one drawing its snows from the whale north-west side of the 
highest Nun Kun peak, from the north slope of an arete 
running from the latter to the Barmal ridge (an arete of D 41), 
and from the north-east face of D 41, which unite in a converg- 
ing snow-field 3 miles* wide at its upper part, with a fall from 
about 19,000 to 17,000 feet. The second head descends from 
the Nun Kun basin, leaving the latter at an altitude of about 
20,300 feet. The two come together at the end of a rock arete 
of tha highest Nun Kun, just above the entrance to a gorge; 
enclosed on both sides by ragged mountains descending steeply 
to the Rangdum valley. The upper end of the gorge appears 
to be at an altitude of about 17,000 feet. From this point the 
glacier, crowding into the gorge in a greatly narrowed stream, 
tumbles more than 5,000 feet in a continuous line of seracs to 
near its termination 8 miles below its sources. 

The most remarkable feature of this glacier, and one seldom 
seen in purely mountain glaciers, is its tongue, which ends 
abruptly at the river-bank, like that of a polar glacier extend- 
ing to tide-water, in a perpendicular ice-precipice about 600 
feet long and 200 high. Its successive layers, as they separate 
themselves, fall in minature icebergs into the current, by which 
they are carried away and strewn along the river-banks below. 
The river washes the base of the whole front of the tongue. 



ao6 Journal of the MaLilchester Geographical Society 

apparently cutting under its lower edge somewhat; but the 
depth to which it can undermine the ice must be slight, as the 
latter does not project appreciably into the river, but breaks off 
at the edge of the bank. Here a river not many ieet in depth 
is seen to produce the same effect upon a massive glacial tongue 
as is produced by the deeper waters of the polar oceans upon 
glacier tongues that push into them. 

West of the tongue, and separted from it by a considerable 
interval, a giant lateral moraine, over 200 feet high and tower- 
ing above it by more than 100 feet, extends entirely across the 
valley, and similarly a shorter lateral moraine projects on its 
east side. These moraines, together with the boulder-masses 
piled up in the space between them, show that the glacier was 
formerly much longer, wider, and thicker than at present, 
covering the whole width of the valley and impinging against 
the opposite mountain walls. The amount of detritus brought 
down to build these moraines and boulder-masses was enormous. 
At present the glacier, as seen both from above and below, 
appears remarkably clean and free from detritus. 

The third or Fariabad glacier, beginning in the two 
southern outlets above mentioned of the basin, and reinforced 
by snows from the external slopes of the two western peaks, 
descends rapidly in a confused mass of ice-falls, caverns, 
crevasses, and seracs, directly south to the side of the Z 1 
glacier above the opening of the Fariabad nala. It is separated 
from the Shafat glacier on the east by the ridge before men- 
tioned, and is bounded on the west by a large spur from the 
highest Nun Kun, descending to the Fariabad opening. Its 
length is 4 and its width 2 miles. It is a most dangerous 
glacier to venture on. 

The three principal Nun Kun glaciers are not very long, 
being respectively only 9, 8, and 4 miles in length, but, spring- 
ing from heights of from 22,000 to over 23,000 feet, and falling 
10,000 to 11,000 feet in these short distances, they possess great 
potential energy, developing ice-falls, ice-precipices, and seracs 
as large and high, crevasses and abysses as wide and profound, 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers Tffj 

ridges and ravines as pronounced, and moraines as gigantic, as 
those found on glaciers of far greater size and length. 

We decided next to try to complete the circuit of the Nun 
Kun. Reconnaissance showed that no passage to the west from 
the top of the Shafat glacier at a high level existed, the way 
being barred by the spur descending from the highest Nun Kun. 
to the Fariabad opening, followed by a succcession of aretes,, 
snow-basins, and precipices ; but if we could get down over the- 
Fariabad glacier, or over a sharp rock-spur of Z 1, to the 
Fariabad opening lying 4,000 feet directly below, we might 
find a way by a nala that was seen to ascend north-west from 
the last, and to end in a great amphitheatre of ice and snow, at 
the top of which a saddle might be found. This would be a 
matter of pure pioneering, as the survey map was of no assist- 
ance, and none of our coolies knew anything of the proposed 
route. Success was by no means certain, but we determined 
to try it. 

We accordingly cut loose from our base camp on August 9, 
with fifty coolies carrying a minimum of lightest outfit and 
nine days' supplies, sending all other luggage back to Suru in 
charge of a Gurkha and shikari by way of the Eangdum valley. 
We ascended the Shafat glacier, crossed the ridge above it, and 
descended the east edge of the Fariabad glacier till it plunged 
down so steeply and became so broken that it was no longer 
available. We then crossed to the rock-spur of Z 1 at an 
altitude of about 16,000 feet, and descended with considerable 
difficulty its precipitous greatly broken face, covered with loose 
rocks and debris for some 2,000 feet to the Z 1 glacier, which 
falling from the top of the mountain in a very steep ice-fall, 
fills the Z 1 nala almost to its junction with the Fariabad nala. 
A short distance above the tongue of this glacier the tongue of 
the Fariabad glacier, coming down from the Nun Kun in a 
great broken ice-wall, ends abruptly at its edge without any 
terminal moraine. The tongue of the Zl glacier ends in a 
steeply falling front of discoloured ice, 300 feet or more in 
height, with a sharply defined curving contour thickly seamed 



ao8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

with longitudinal creTasses. Here, also, there is no terminal 
moraine, though the nala-bed below is sprinkled quite thickly 
with dSbris, 

Glaciers do not by any means always form terminal 
moraines. As to this fact, there is no difference of opinion 
among glaciologists, in whatever manner they may account 
for the formation of such moraines. The one hypothesis, that 
terminal moraines result from the gathering up and pushing 
along of the sub^glacial ground-moraine material, and even, as 
some hold, from the ploughing up of the terrain beneath the 
ground-moraine by an advancing tongue, and to a less extent 
by a stationary one, so as to form a wall at its end, fails to 
account for the cases where no terminal moraine results, even 
under the most favourable conditions of active advance. It 
also ignores or minimizes the part which moraine material 
carried by the tongue must play in the process of moraine 
building. It is evident that no moraine would be formed by 
a tongue in retreat. 

The other hypothesis, that such moraines are wholly due to 
the deposition and excretion of the material lying in and upon 
the tongue, presupposes the co-operation of two factors; (1) that 
a glacial tongue should carry a considerable quantity of detritus 
and (2) that its front should remain stationary long enough for 
the detritus to be deposited in sufficient quantity to form a 
moraine, i.e., the ice from above must advance to the terminal 
line as fast as the ice there melts and discharges its detritus 
upon that already deposited, till the process is completed. By 
this hypothesis, if a tongue carries no moraine material, no 
moraine should be formed under any conditions of advance or 
retreat. This fails, in its turn, to account for those cases 
where glacial tongues bearing no observable moraine material 
have been found to be bounded by high and large terminal 
moraines. If the end of a tongue recedes faster than the ice 
above it advances, no moraine results, its detritus being spread 
more or less evenly over the denuded surface without accumu- 
lating at any point. 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 209 

The tongues of the two glaciers above mentioned, at present, 
furnish examples of the absence of one of these factors in each 
case. The Fariabad tongue bears no detritus to speak of, and 
has no deposit at its end. That of Z 1 has been receding con- 
stantly and rather rapidly for some time, and, though carrying 
considerable dSbris, has left it evenly distributed over the nala- 
bed in front of it, not having paused long enough at any one 
point to build an elevation that might be called a moraine. 
Half a mile farther down the nala are some larger dSbris 
deposits overgrown with vegetation, which might be regarded 
as terminal moraines. 

The successive terminal moraines often found in front of 
glaciers, with intervals between them little or not at all strewn 
with detritus, show that the same glacier, according to the 
presence of both these factors or to the absence of one or both, 
may build terminal moraines at one time and fail to do so at 
another. The smoothness of many such intervals would indi- 
cate that, during a period of recession, the respective tongue 
carried but little detritus. In Himalaya, glaciers may recede 
for considerable distances without leaving behind dl^&m of any 
size, as in case of the Chogo Lungma tongue, which has 
retreated 1,184 feet in forty-two years, leaving a smooth river- 
bed below it. Observed facts appear to show that there is truth 
in both the above hypotheses, and it is not improbable that 
many moraines are formed by the combined action of both the 
methods they suggest. In 1902 and 1903, when I saw the 
tongue of the Tippur glacier, near that of the Chogo Lungma, 
it was adding to its large terminal moraine at a rapid rate by 
the deposit upon the latter of detritus from its upper surface. 

From the Fariabad opening we followed up the nala leading 
north-west (North- West Nala). About a mile above the former, 
west of the rock-spur from the highest Nun Eun, a glacier from 
the base of that peak reaches the north side of the nala in an 
ice-fall, but does not penetrate it. Two miles above this, a 
glacier, descending- from the mountains on the south, fills the 
nala for another mile. Two hundred feet in front of its tongue 



210 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

is a high terminal moraine composed entirely of fine brown 
sand with ice still beneath it. This appears as if it might have 
been formed by the ploughing up of the nala-bed by the glacial 
tongue during an advance. The sand has protected the ice on 
which it rests from the sun's heat, while the uncovered ice 
behind it has melted entirely away. Higher up another glacial 
tongue enters the nala from the south, on which are two 
picturesque lakes. After ascending the steep glacial amphi- 
theatre in which the nala ends, we came to a snow col at 17,347 
feet, south of Nieves Penitentes peak, and east of the head of 
the Bara Zaj Nai nala, to which most dangerous-looking ice- 
slopes descend. We named this North- West col. 

The only practicable passage from here appeared to be 
towards Mount Nieves Penitentes. A gentle descent of half 
an hour brought us to its base. Here we were overtaken by a 
dense mist. Having fortunately taken bearings before it set in, 
we pushed up an ascending snow-slope in the mist between an 
ice-fall and a bergschrund, and finally reached a rock-arete 
rising above the snow close under the western angle of Mount 
Nieves Penitentes at an altitude of 17,260^ feet. This our 
coolies, who arrived two hours later, and who up to this point 
could give us no information, recognized and called the Barmal 
la. Here we camped four nights. The Barmal la commands 
a view of the head and of much of the course of the Barmal 
glacier, a large and handsome sheet of ice sj^inging^ from the 
slopes of Nieves Penitentes peak and of D 41, 2 miles north, 
and from a high rock-wall connecting them, which we named 
the Barmal ridge. It runs westward for 8 miles, walled in on 
each side by a line of jagged peaks, and ends among green 
slopes south-east of a mountain-cirque enclosing the reservoir 
of a branch of the Bhot Kol glacier. The width of the Barmal 
glacier near its origin is about 2 miles, but it soon narrows to 
1 mile, maintaining this width for over 5 miles. This glacier 
is not on the Survey map. It has, however, evidently been long 
known to the natives, who often cross it with yaks in going 
between Tongul and the Bara Zaj Nai, and also the Fariabad 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 2zi 

nala. Local tradition credits one European with having visited 
it many years ago. In 1902, Rev. C. E. Barton and Dr. A. 
Neve, ascending from Tongul, crossed it to the Bara Zaj Nai 
nala at a point about 5 miles west of the highest Nun Kun. In 
1904, Dr. Neve reports having crossed it again at the same 
point, and having climbed on the side of D 41 to a height stated 
as 19;200 feet. 

On two successive days we made first ascents of Mount 
Nieves Penitentes, 19,080 feet, and D 41, 20,671 feet, from the 
summits of which we obtained not only comprehensive views 
of the surrounding region, but unobstructed views of the 
western end of the Nun Kun massif, of the two reservoirs of the 
Ganri glacier, and to the west the full sweep of the Barmal 
glacier to its end 8 miles beyond. 

In the February, 1903, Alpine Journal, Dr. Neve shows a 
photograph of a section of the Barmal glacier taken from the 
pass to the Bara Zaj Nai, which he designates as ** the Great 
Western Glacier of Nun Kun." He further states in his 
** Tourist's Guide to Kashmir," 6th edit., 1906, p. 122, that Mr. 
Barton and he, in 1902, " discovered that the Bhot Kol glacier 
comes all the way from the Nun Kun peak." Also in the 
February, 1906, Alpine Journal, p. 360, he speaks of the Barmal 
glacier as ** the upper Bhot Kol glacier." From these quota- 
tions it is evident that he supposes the Barmal to be identical 
with the Bhot Kol glacier, and that its ultimate source is the 
highest Nun Kun peak. 

I cannot agree with him in either of these suppositions. 
As regards the first, it may be said, having been over the same 
ground, and having also traversed the Bhot Kol glacier from end 
to end, I found no evidence that the two glaciers are identical. 
The lower end of the Barmal glacier, where Dr. Neve supposes 
the connection to be, is separated from the Bhot Kol by moun- 
tains and ridges from 17,000 to 19,000 feet in height. As 
regards the second supposition, from the summits of Mount 
Nieves Penitentes and D 41, the south-west and north-west 
faces of the great pyramid of the highest Nun Kun are seen to 



212 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

be separated by a sharp rock-arete broken at one place, running 
down the pyramid from its apex to its base on the high plateau, 
where the arete is lowest. Thence it passes directly west, rising 
as it goes, and joins the Barmal ridge at its highest central 
point, about 19,000 feet. 

This arete and the Barmal ridge turn all the snows coming 
from the Nun Kun peak, and those of the plateau between this 
and the Barmal ridge, into the west reservoir of the Ganri 
glacier on the north, and towards the North-West nala on the 
south side, and not a particle of snow from the Nun Kun can 
enter the Barmal glacier. Had Dr. Neve climbed sufficiently 
high on D 41 to fully overlook the Barmal ridge, he would have 
seen the impossibility of this supposition. 

The ascent of Mount Nieves Penitentes and of D 41 was by 
no means easy. Both are peaks of the very first order. One 
slope of the former requiring three-quarters of an hour to 
climb, was steeper than could be measured by the scale of 
Abney's level, being apparently 70® or 72°. The last 1,500 feet 
of D 41 was also difficult, consisting of ice-slants varying from 
60° to 70°. Fortunately these were wholly covered, as stated, 
with nieves penitentes, forming a precipitous giant stairway 
of ice, by which we were able to scale it in safety. Had its 
surface been smooth, the undertaking would have been much 
more difficult, more fatiguing, and highly dangerous. Half an 
hour after the top was reached a thick mist swept up from the 
Barmal glacier and enveloped us, shutting out all landmarks. 
This was accompanied by an icy wind which congealed the 
breath into icicles on our moustaches and covered our clothing 
with feathery fringes. Hecognizing the danger both of 
remaining and descending, we preferred to attempt the latter, 
and succeeded in getting down in two parties invisible to each 
other, by following the slight spoor made in ascending. 
Previous to departure a stone cairn was built on the summit 
and notes of the ascent placed in it. 

The Barmal la stands perhaps 600 feet above the Barmal 
glacier, at the top of a very steep ice-wall cleft by two 



The Nun Kun Group and its Glaciers 2z^ 

bergschrimds, to ascend or descend which requires a good 
knowledge of ice-craft. Our coolies were powerless to negotiate 
it alone, which fact prevented many of them from deserting^ 
during the four days we camped there, and even the guide and 
porters would not venture on it unroped. The rock-cairns, 
stand on the summit of the la. By whom they were made we- 
could not learn. No records were found in them, and I know 
of no account of any European having visited this place. Aa 
it is practically certain that natives could not reach it from 
the Barmal glacier unless the ice-wall were greatly changed, it 
may be surmised that some party, having come up to it from 
the south side, mistaking it for a snow-pass somewhat farther 
west, and having found the descent to the Barmal glacier 
barred by the ice-wall, built these cairns as a beacon by which 
the place might in future be avoided. The existence of other 
cairns on ledges to the south, indicating the way to the other 
pass, supports this view. Half or three-quarters of a mile west 
lies the snow-pass referred to, accessible by easy snow-slopes, 
leading from the Barmal glacier to the Bara Zaj Nai. It ia 
over this pass that the natives take their yak-caravans from 
Tongul, and this was the pass used by Dr. Neve, also under the^ 
name of Barmal la. 

The Sentik la is a depression about a mile distant from D 41, 
in the ridge leading west from it. Over this pass lies the way 
from the Barmal glacier to Tongul, the nearest village in thfr 
Suru valley. Below the pass the Sentik glacier, about three 
miles long, coming from the north side of D 41 and neighbour- 
ing mountains, and receiving two ice-falls from the west 
reservoir of the Ganri glacier, descends north to the head of a 
very steep nala, enclosed on both sides by jagged rock-peaks, 
below which slopes and ridges fall away to Tongul, a short 
march from Suru. By this route we returned to the latter 
village, having covered over 90 miles of rough country in 
completing the first circuit of the Nun Kun, besides many moro 
in exploration and ascents. 

August 18 and 19 were very warm days at Suru, the sun 



2X4 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

burning with unusual fervour. We had found during the 
summer, as during those of 1902 and 1903, sun maxima of 
200"^ to 206*^ Fahr. at high altitudes to be not at all uncommon, 
but had never known them to attain the figures reached on these 
days. On the 18th, at 1 p.m., the sun thermometer registered 
206% and, at 1-15, 212"^ Fahr. As this last figure seemed 
incredible, the instrument, which was so hot that it could 
scarcely be touched by the hand, was raised to the vertical 
position and shaken, but the mercury did not fall. At 1-25 it 
reached 216^ Fahr. This was not only an unusually high 
maximum, but it occurred at an unusually late hour, most 
maxima I have observed occurring at or before 1 o'clock. 

On the 19th, at 12-30 p.m., the thermometer registered 196"". 
At 12-45, 213% At 1, through a thin film of cloud, 217% not 
falling when placed vertical; and at 1-6, 219° Fahr. The 
altitude of Suru is 10,850 feet. As sun-temperatures increase 
in proportion to altitude, what must the temperature on these 
days have been at over 20,000 feet? On these, as on other 
occasions when I have noted high temperatures, the maxima 
showed themselves in sudden waves or flashes of heat lasting a 
few moments and then subsiding. It may also be noted that, 
as on the 18th, some of the highest temperatures have occurred 
when the sky was covered with thin cirrho-stratus clouds. 



Proceedings of the Society 215 



Proceedings of the Society.* 

July 1st to December Slst, 1907. 

The 760th meeting of the Society was held at Knutsford on Saturday, July 13th, 
1907. 

The Rev. G. A. Payne (author of "Mrs. Gaskell and Knutsford/* etc.) met the 
Members at the station and kindly acted as leader. 

A visit was first made to the Unitarian Chapel, built in 1687, in which Mr. Payne 
gave a short chat on its interesting history, the references to Knutsford and district, 
mentioned in Mrs. Gaskell's novels, and her own residence in the town. 

Later on the party proceeded to Norbury Booths Hall, where they were met by 
Mr. A. L. Goodson, J. P., who kindly showed them the gardens and grounds of the 
Hall, in which was a very ancient and beautiful Beech tree, one of the finest in the 
neighbourhood. The Hall was erected by Peter Legh, Esq., in 1745. 

Before leaving Mr. Goodson, Mr. D. A. Little moved, Mr. C. £. Reade seconded, 
and it was resolved that the hearty thanks of the Members be offered to Mr. Goodson 
for his kindness. Mr. Goodson, in responding, invited the Members to visit the 
grounds again next year, so that the Spring wood, the ruins of the old moated hall, 
etc., might be seen by the Members. 

The party proceeded along the lovely "Lime Walk" and back to Knutsford, 
where the Public Library was pointed out. 

Before leaving the Cranford Cafe, Mr. Payne mentioned the plaoes connected 
with Mrs. Gaskell, which it was proposed to visit, and Mr. Theodore Gregory, 
F.C.A., moved, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts seconded, and it was resolved that the 
, thanks of all present be given to the Rev. G. A. Payne for his services as leader. 
Mr. Payne made a suitable response, and then the Gaskell Tower (erected by Mr. 
Richard H. Watt as a memorial to the authoress), Mrs. Gaskell's and other houses at 
Heathside, Tatton Gates, The Old Vicarage, etc., were visited, the explanations of 
Mr. Payne adding greatly to the interest of the walk. 

The party were very fortunate in the weather, as though the rain was falling 
heavily on arrival, it ceased in an hour, and the remainder of the afternoon was fine. 



The 761st Meeting of the Society was held at Barton Moss on Saturday, July 27th, 
1907. 

The Members, under the leadership of Mr. R. Cobden Phillips, proceeded to 
Peel Green by car, and then walked to the Farm Colony, established by the Distress 
Committee of the Manchester Corporation. 

The party were impressed with the evidence of the amount of work done under 
the supervision of Mr. Stewart Gray. 

* The Meetings were held in the Geographical Hall, unless otherwise stated. 



2i6 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The walk was continued by way of the Grange to Barton Moss Station, the 
various wild flowers, the peat underneath the eighteen inches of soil, and other 
objects of interest being noted. 

Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts moved, Mr. C. £. Reade seconded, and it was resolved 
that the sincere thanks of those present be given to Mr. Phillips for his kindness in 
leading the party and for the explanations which had made the ramble both 
interesting and profitable, as even the most experienced acknowledged that something 
new had been brought forward. 



The 762nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October Ist, 1907, at 
6 p.m. 

An inspection of the Museum and Library constituted the first hour^s proceedings, 
light refreshments being served in the Members' room. 

At 7-15 p.m. Mr. Councillor John Snaddon took the chair, and, on his proposition 
the Minutes of the Meetings held on April 16th, June 29th, July 13th, and July 27th 
were taken as read. 

The election of the following Members was announced : — 

Honorary : Brigadier-General Sir J. Willcocks, K.C.M.G. 

Ordinary : Miss J. P. Kitchener, Messrs. A. M. Tejeria (Spanish Consul), 
Cornelius Sever, Wm. Rigby, J. H. Haywood, Edwin Schofield, J.P., Young 
J. Pentland, P. K. Glazebrook, R. Ernest Hope and Captain A. Doggett. 

Associate : Miss H. M. Burgess, Messrs. J. Carter Moon and R. Crosthwaite. 
M.A., B.Sc. 

Mr. J. Reid Gray spoke of " Some Ancient Dreams of Italy in Stone and Paint," 
and exhibited a fine collection of sketches in colour, made by him during his visit. 
(See page 152.) 

A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Gray for his very interesting address was moved 
by Mr. J. J. Gleave, seconded by Mr. John R. Smith, supported by the Chaiiman 
and carried unanimously. 



The 763rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 8th, 1907, at 
7-80 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 1st were taken as read. 

The election of the following Members was announced : — 

Ordinary : Mrs. Laycock, Mrs. M. Matusch, Miss A. I. Taylor, Messrs. J. Bishop, 
A. E. Buchanan Brown, J. F. Cooper, A. T. Greenwood, J. Reid Gray, A. 
Guggenheim, A. Hanemann, A. Lyall, Joe Nicholson, W. Owen, A. Saalfeld, 
M. Shaw, and Walter Taylor. 

Associate : Miss M. Hopwood and Mr. W. H. Ward. 

Mrs. Leonidas Hubbard, junr., addressed the Members on "A Woman's Way 
through Unknown Labrador" (p. 169). The Address was illustrated with original 
Lantern Slides. 

Councillor A. Y. Scholfield moved, and Mr. Hermann Woolley, F.R.G.S., 
seconded a very hearty and appreciative vote of thanks to Mrs. Hubbard for ihs 
intensely interesting account of her journey, and the resolution was passed 
unanimously with acclamation. 



Proceedings of the Society 217 

The 764th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 15th, 1907, at 
7-80 p.m. In the chair, Mr. F. Zimmern. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on October Sth, were taken as read. 

The Chairman communicated a letter received from the secretary of Mr. Mark 
Sykes, stating that Mr. Sykes had been suddenly taken ill and was unable to come 
to Manchester to lecture on " The Kurdish Tribes of Asiatic Turkey " as arranged. 

A resolution of sympathy with Mr. Sykes in his illness, and hoping for his 
speedy recovery was passed imanimously. 

The Chairman announced that Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., had very kindly, 
at short notice, agreed to lecture in place of Mr. Sykes. 

Mr. Reed gave a lecture on "A Visit to Japan," with lantern illustrations. 

A cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Reed for his very interesting address was 
passed unanimously on the proposition of the Chairman. 



The 765th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 22nd, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 15th were taken as read. 

The Chairman announced the election of the following members : — 

Ordinary : Miss Ada Lemon, Messrs. L. Aron, P. Bles, James Brown, J. P., G. F. 
Burditt, John Dendy, £. Hewitt, W. Higginbottom, G. Reiss, Hans Renold, J. 
Walter Robson, Wm. Ruttenau, Theo. Schlagintweit (Imperial German Consul), 
H. Whitworth, W. H. Zimmern and Dr. L. Sterne. 

Associate : Mr. Walter Thorpe. 

The Chairman reported that he attended a special gathering at the Bury 
Athenaeum on the previous evening, as a representative of the Society. 

Dr. E. M. Wrench, M.V.O., gave an account of some "Observations of the Effects 
of Glaciers in Derwent Valley, Derbyshire." illustrated with original Lantern Slides. 

Councillor John Stevenson moved, Mr. Bernard Hobson, M.Sc., seconded, and it 
was unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Dr. Wrench 
for his very interesting and instructive address. 



The 766th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, October 29th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. F. Zimmern. 

The Minutes of the Meeting held on October 22nd, 1907, were taken as read. 

The Rev. Astell D. Powell, M.A., described a journey "Round the 'All Red 
Route' ¥rith a Camera," illustrated ¥rith original lantern slides. 

Mr. C. A. Clarke moved, Mr. R. Emmett Hailwood seconded, and it was 
unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of the Meeting be given to the lecturer 
for his very interesting address. 



The 767th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November 5th, 1907, at 
7 30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. F. Zimmern. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on October 29th, 1907, were taken as read. 
The Chairman announced the election of the following members : — 



2x8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Honorary : Mr. J. Scott Keltie, LL.D., Secretary of the Royal Geographical 
Society. 

Ordinary : Miss M. Simon, Messrs. R. Ambler, C. Beving, Wm. Harris, 
Ph. Segner, £. D. Simon and A. Wilson. 

Mr. W. P. James Fawcns gave an address on " Experiences in Zanzibar and East 
Africa," illustrating his remarks ¥nth lantern slides prepared from photographs he 
had taken. 

Mr. C. A. Clarke moved, Mr. R. Emmett Hailwood seconded, and it was 
unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Fawcns 
for his very interesting address. 



The 768th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, Novemb^ 12th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. John R. Smith. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on November 5th, were taken as read. 

Mr. T. H. Coates gave an account of holiday visits to the ''Channel Islands," 
illustrating his remarks with a fine set of lantern slides. 

Councillor J. Snaddon moved, Mr. George Pearson seconded, and it was resolved 
that the hearty thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Coates for his very interesting 
address. 



The 769th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, Novonber I9th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. David A. Little. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on November 12th, were taken as read. 

The election of the following New Members was announced : — 

Ordinary : Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon (Dean of Manchester), Mr. William Robert 
Baz. 

Associate : Messrs. Oscar Johnson and W. P. Rutter, B. Com. 

Affiliated Society : Kersal School. 

Miss Margaret Dowson gave an address on her journey in India, entitled " Snap- 
shots in India," and illustrated her remarks with original lantern slides. 

Mr. M. W. Thompstone moved, Mr. £. Russell Evans seconded, and it was 
resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Miss Dowson for her very 
interesting address. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., moved, Mr. J. B. Dowdall seconded, and it was 
unanimously resolved "that the congratulations of this meeting be conveyed to the 
Chairman of the Council, Rev. S. A. Steinthal, on the attainment of his 8Ist 
birthday." 



The 770th Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, November 26th, 1907, at 
7-80 p.m. In the chair, Mr. R. Cobden Phillips. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on November 19th, were taken as read. 

Mr. James Stephenson Reid described a "Cycling Tour through Connemara and 
the West of Ireland." The address was illustrated with lantern slides. 



Proceedings of the Society 219 

Mp. Robert Stewart moved, Mr. Wm. Turner seconded, and it was unanimoosly 
resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to Mr. Beid for his very 
interesting address. 



The 771st Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 3rd, 1907, at 
7-80 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Hermann WooUey, F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on November 26th, 1907, were taken as read. 

The election of the following four Ordinary Members was announced : — Councillor 
Sir T. Thomhill Shann, J. P. ; Rev. H. £. Dowson, B.A. ; Messrs. Hy. Shorrocks 
and J. Smith. 

Dr. Wm. Hunter Workman, M.A., F.R.G.S., described "An Exploration of the 
Nun-Kun Moimtain Group and its Glaciers, in Suru, Kashmir"; illustrating his 
vemarks with a very fine set of original lantern slides. (See page 183.) 

Mr. F. Zimmem moved, Mr. R. Cobden Phillips seconded, and it was unanimously 
resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to the lecturer for his very 
interesting address. 



The 772nd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 10th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. Harry Nuttall, M.P., F.R.G.S. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on December 3rd, 1907, were taken as read. 

On the proposition of the Chairman, it was unanimously resolved that the 
sympathy of the Members present be conveyed to Dr. F. Nansen in his bereavement. 

It was also resolved that the sympathy of those present with the relatives of the 
late Mr. G. M. Richardson be conveyed to them. ^ 

The Chairman announced that a letter had been received from the Rev. S. A. 
8teinthal thanking the Members for their congratulations re his 81st birthday. 

Mr. Frederick Lambert, F.R.G.S., described a journey to and "Through the 
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky in search of the Eyeless Fish and other Blind Fauna," 
illustrating his remarks with some beautiful lantern slides. He concluded by showing 
some interior views from other American caves on his patent Crystalline Screen, 
«xplaining the formation of stalactites and stalagmites in a very interesting manner. 

Mr. Councillor John Snaddon moved, Mr. George Pearson seconded, Mr. James 
Hindle and the Chairman supported a very cordial vote of thanks to Mr. Lambert 
for his very interesting lecture and for the beautiful slides exhibited. 



The 773rd Meeting of the Society was held on Tuesday, December 17th, 1907, at 
7-30 p.m. In the chair, Mr. R. Cobden Phillips. 

The Minutes of the Meeting, held on December 10th, 1907, were taken as read. 

The Chairman mentioned the death of Mr. John Hardman, of Radcliffe, who had 
been a member for 17 years. 

It was resolved that the sympathy of those present be conveyed to the relatives 
of Mr. Hardman. 



220 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The election of the following five Ordinary Members was announced : — ^Messrs. 
George Atkinson, F.R.G.S., Harold L. Behrens, J. H. Greenhow (Norweg;ian 
Consul), Thomas A. Garlick and Thomas Martin. 

The Rev. Fr«d A. Bees described a journey to "The Swiss and Italian Laices/' 
The address was illustrated with lantern views. 

On the proposition of Mr. Geo. Ginger, seconded by Mr. C. A. Clarke, it was 
unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the meeting be given to the lecturer 
for his very interesting address. 



The 774th Meeting of the Society was held on Friday, December 20th, 1907, at 
6-80 p.m., and took the form of a lecture to the children of the Members. In the 
chair, Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, A.S.A.A. 

Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S., gave a lecture on "Some Great African Travellers 
and their Discoveries," illustrating his remarks by a large number of fine lanAem 
slides. 

A round of hearty applause in thanks to Mr. Reed was given by the children 
in appreciation of his very interesting address. 



List of Maps 221 



List of Maps, Books, Journals, Additions to the 
Museum, etc 

ACQUIRED BY THE SOCIETY FROM JANUARY Ist TO DECEMBER 8l8T. 

1907. 



MAPS. 

GENERAL. 

Weltyerkehrskarte entworfen von A. Herrich. 1/60,000,000. Glogau : Carl 

Flemming. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
W^tkarte der Azimute und der Entfemungen fur Hamburg. (Mit eioer Karte und 

einer Tafel) von G. Grablo¥ritz. * Dr. R. Schutt, Hamburg. 
Map of the Ottoman Empire, the Black Sea and the Frontiers of Russia and Persia, 

by James Wyld. 75 miles to 1 inch. London : Jas. Wyld, 1863. * Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 

EUROPE. 
The Imperial Geographical, Historical, Chronological, Statistical, Mineralogical, and 

Railway Chart of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Scale 

30 miles to 1 inch. Glasgow : J. Stark. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The British Isles. Scale : geographical miles 60 = 1 degree. London : Cassell, Petter 

and Galpin. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Isle of Wight. By John Albin. Scale : 1 inch to 1 mile. Newport, I. of W. : J. 

Albin, August 12th, 1807. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Devonshire, with its Railways. 6 miles to 1 inch. London : H. G. Collins. * Rev. 

S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Ordnance Survey Maps. No. 73, N.W. Market Drayton; No. 78, N.E. Bangor; 

No. 79, N.W. Denbigh; No. 82, N.W. and N.E. Chesterfield; No. 87 N.W., 

S.E., S.W. Doncaster; No. 94, N.E., S.E. Beverley. Scale: one inch to one 

mile. London : Ordnance Survey. 1840 — 1868. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Mineralogical and Greological Map of the Coalfield of Lancashire, with parts of 

Yorkshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire, by Elias Hall. Castleton, Derbyshire. 

About 1882. (Hand coloured.) *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Plan of Manchester and Salford, with their Environs, showing the division of 

Property and the length of each street, from an Actual Survey by RicWd 

Thornton. Manchester: Bancks & Co. 1832. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Lancashire Sheet 104. Manchester and Salford. Scale : 6 inches to 1 mile. London : 

Ordnance Survey. 1848. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Ordnance Map, Southport, Preston, St. Helens, Bury. Scale 1 inch to a mile. London : 

Ordnance Survey. 1842. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 

* Donor. 



222 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Plan of the Town and Borough of Liverpool, with Birkenhead, Tranmere, Seacombe, 

New Brighton, etc. By J. Bartholomew. 2 in. to a mile. London and 

Edinburgh: A. Follarton. *Itev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Yorkshire. Sheet 165. Qrindleton. Scale six inches to a mile. London : Ordnance 

Survey. 1850. *Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Ordnance Survey MafM. No. LXXXIII., Lincoln. No. LXXXV., Mouth of the 

Humber. Scale : 1 inch to 1 mile. London. 1872. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Pembrokeshire. (Two sheets. ) Scale : one inch to a mile. London : Ordnance 

Survey. 1848. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Isle of Man. Scale : 1 inch to 1 mile. London : Ordnance Survey. 1874. * Mr. 

Charles Boeder. 
Map of the Isle of Man. Scale : ) inch to 1 mile. London and Liverpool : George 

Philip and Son. *Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Map of Ireland. With the lines of Water Communication. With 14 Index Maps 

of the various Waterways. Dublin : Aliens* Lithog : for Irish Inland Navigation 

Company. 1830. (Mounted in one length, over seven yards long and about a 

foot wide.) *Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Norway. Kart over Finmarkens Amt. Scale: 1/500,000. *Norges Geografiske 

Opmaaling. 
Norway. General Kart over det sydlige Norge. Scale: 1/400,0000. Sheet XV. 

* Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. 

Norway. General Kart. Scale: 1/360,000. Sheet A., 1—11. •Norges Geografiske 

Opmaaling. 
Norway. Topografisk Kart over Kongeriget Norge. Scale: 1/100,000. Sheets: 

4 A, 9 B, 10 C, 31 B, 25 D, 38 D, 46 D, K 11, K 12, K IS, K 14, M 9, S4. 

V 1. V 8, V 9, W 1, W 7, W 8, Y 8, iE 3. • Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. 
Norway. Special Kart over Havne i Finmarken. Scale : 1/50,000. Sheet II. 

* Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. 

Norway. Special Kart B. Scale : 1/50,000. Sheets : 40\ 45', 50, 53, 55, 65, 66, 68. 

* Norges Geografiske Opmaaling. 

Norway. Special Kart C. Scale : 1/25,000. Sheets: 1, 2, 3. •Norges Geografiske 

Opmaaling. 
Kjurte der Gegend Zwischen Numberg, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Neumarkt mit besonderer 

Berucksichtigung der Frankischen Schweiz. Von Oberlieutenant A. Hanser. 

Nurnberg : J. L. Lotibeck. * Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Panorama du Bigi Koulm. Nouvelle Edition. 1860. Chez Alphons Zinunennann 

an Bigi Kouhn. * Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Travelling Map of North Italy, with Index. From Keith Johnson's Boyal Atlas of 

Modem Geography. 'Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Map of Hungary (Hungarian Names). Scale: 1/600.000. Budapest. 1907. 'Mr. 

W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S. 
Turkey. 1/250,000. SheeU : Adrianople. Bodosto, Viae. T.S., G.S. No. 2.097. 

London : War Office. 1906. • The Director of Military Operations. 
Caucasia. Plate 1. Scale: 32 miles to 1 inch. T.S., G.S. No. 2.167. •The 

Director of Military Operations. 



List of Maps 223 

ASIA. 

Turkey in Asia, with Russian Armenia and the Countries on the Caucasus. Scale : 
about 50 miles to 1 inch. London : George Philip and Son. * Mr. Charles 
Boeder. » 

Persia and Afghanistan. Scale : 1/4,065,040. T.S., G.S. No. 2,149. London : 
War Office. April, 1906. *The Director of Military Operations. 

AFRICA. 

Afrika. 1/25,000,000. Stieler's Hand Atlas. No. 68. Gotha : Justus Perthes* 

*Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Index Map of Africa.For Sheets of Maps, 1/1,000,000 and 1/250,000 T.S., G.S. 

Revised November, 1907. LD.W.O. No. 2,273. *The Director of Military 

Operations. 
Index Maps to Sheets of South African Topographical Surveys on Scales of 1/250,000 

and 1/125,000. Scale: 1/4,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2,214a. London: War 

Office. Revised June, 1907. *Mr. Edward Stanford. 
Gambia. Reproduced from the Work of the Anglo-French Boundary Commission, 

1904-1905. Scale: 1/250,000. T.S., G.S. No. 1,958. London : War Office. 1906. 

(Two Sheets.) * The Director of Military Operations. 
Map of Part of West Africa, including Gold Coast, Northern and Southern Nigeria. 

Scale: 1/6,336,000. Topographical Section, General Staff. No. 1,935. War 

Office. 1907. * The Director of Military Operations. 
Africa. 1/1,000,000. Gold Coast, Northern Territories. Part of Sheet 60. T.S., 

G.S. No. 2,146. London: War Office. 1906. * The Director of Military 

Operations. 
Africa. 1/1,000,000. Parts of Sheets 72 and 73. Gold Coast (Provisional). T.S., 

G.S. No. 2,204. London: War Office. 1907. •The Director of Military 

Operations. 
Gold Coast. 1/125,000. Sheet 72. K. 111. Published by the authority of Sir John 

Pickersgill Rodger, Governor, under the direction of Major F. G. Guggisberg, 

R.E., F.R.G.S., Director of Surveys, Gold Coast. March, 1907. * Mr. Edward 

Stanford. 
Outline Map of Northern and Southern Nigeria. Scale: 1/2,000,000. T.S., G.S. 

No. 2,235. 1907. *The Director of Military Operations 
Political Map of Northern Nigeria. Compiled at the Intelligence Office, Zungeru. 

Scale: 1/2,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2,248. 'The Director of Military Operations. 
Map of Boundary between Southern Nigeria and Kameruns. By Capt. A. J. 

Woodroffe, R.E. (British Commissioner), and X^ieut. J. G. Hearson, R.E. 

(Assistant British Commissioner), 1905-6. (Two Sheets.) Scale: 1/100,000. 

T.S., G.S. No. 2,240. London : War Office. 1906. * The Director of Military 

Operations. 
German South- West Africa (Provisional). Scale: 1/3,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 

2,133. London : War Office. 1906. * The Director of Military Operations. 
Africa. 1/1,000,000. Sheet 119, Walfisch Bay. T.S., G.S. No. 1,539 Lopdon s 

War Office. 1906. •The Director of Military Operations. 



224 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 

South Africa. Scale : 1/2,500,000. Edmbnrgh : John Bartholomew and Co. 1899. 
•Rev. S. A. Stointhal, F.R.G.S. 

Africa. 1/250,000. Cape Colony. Reconnaissance Series. Sheets 127-E, Orange 
River Month; 127'-F, Stink fontein ; 127-K and L, Port NoUoth and 0*Okiep; 
12g-R, Britetown. T.S., G.S. No. 1,764. London: War Office. 1907. 'Mr. 
Edward Stanford. 

Africa. 1/125,000 Series. Orange River Colony. Sheets 125-17-11, BothaviUe; 
125-U-iy, Odendalls Rust. T.S., G.S. No. 2,230. London : War Office. 1906. 
*Mr. Edward Stanford. 

Transvaal (Provisional Issue). Scale: 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2,187. *The 

Director of Military Operations. 
Map of Zululand. Showing the relative positions of the various Gold and Coal 

Fields, and the Routes of Approach. Compiled by J. Jervis Garrard, Assoc 

M.Inst.C.E., Deputy Commissioner of Mines for Zululand. Scale : 5 miles to 

1 inch. 1895. *Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 
Provisional Map of North-Eastem Rhodesia. Compiled by O. L. Beringer. Scale: 

1/1,000,000. *The British South Africa Company. 
Anglo-Portuguese Boundary North and South of the Zambesi. Scale: 1/250,000. 

Seven Sheets. T.S., G.S. No. 2,182. London: War Office. 1906. *The 

Director of Military Operations. 
Triangulation Chart, Anglo- Portuguese Boundary (North and South of the Zambesi), 

1904-05. Scale: 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 2,268. *The Director of 

Miliary Operations. 
Sud-Afrika and Madagaskar. 1/12,500,000. Stieler*s Hand Atlas. No. 71. Gotha: 

Justus Perthes. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
British Central Africa. Africa, 1/1,000,000. Part of Sheets 106, 111, 117. T.S., 

G.S. No. 2,136. London: War Office. 1906. 'The Director of Military 

Operations. 
Map of a Portion of Somaliland. Scale: 1/1,000,000. T.S., G.S. No. 1,781. 

London : War Office. 1906. * The Director of Military Operations. 
Africa. 1/250,0000. Somaliland. Sheets: 68-G, 68-H, 68-1, 68-J, 68.N, 68-0. 

T.S., G.S. No. 1,764. London: War Office. *The Director of Mflitary 

Operations. 
Africa. 1/250,000. Uganda. Sheets 86-A, 86-B, 86-E, 86.F, 86-1, 86-M, 86-N. 

T.S., G.S. No. 1,764. London: War Office. •The Director of Military 

Operations. 
Africa. 1/250,000. Abyssinia. Sheet 68-M, Harrar. T.S., G.S. No. 1,764. 'The 

Director of Military Operations. 
Africa. 1/1,000,000. Sheets : 45 Dongola and Berber, 46 Suakin, 55 Khartoum, 

66 White Nile and Sobat. T.S., G.S. No. 1,589. London: War Office. 1907. 

*The Director of Military Operations. 
Africa. 1/250,000. Sinai Peninsula. Sheet 17-D and J, El Arish; 17-K and part 

of E, Rafah; 17-1 and part of C, Port Said; 17-L and part of F, Mt. Hor; 

17-0, Suez; 17-P, Nakhl; 17-Q, Wadi Taba; 17.R, Akaba. T.S., G.S. No. 

1,764. • The Director of Military Operations. 



List of Books 225 

AMERICA. 

New Orographical Map of North America. Compiled under the Direction of H. J. 
Mackinder, M.A. Scale: 1/6,013,500 London: Edward Stanford. 1906. 
(Price, Coloured Sheets 16s.) *The Publisher. 

OCEANIA. 
The Australian Colonies. Scale : 125 miles to 1 inch. London : George Cox. 1853. 

*Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Map of Victoria. Scale : about 23 miles to 1 inch. London : E. Whitehead and Co. 

1890. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Copper Mining District of Cloncurry, North- Western Queensland. Showing Freeholds 

and Mining Leases. Scale : 6 mUes to an inch. Brisbane : Queensland Greological 

Survey Publication, No. 213. * Queensland Geological Survey. 

ATLASES, ALBUMS, Etc. 
Pocket Atlas of the World. Chicago and New York : Rand, McNally and Co. 

1888. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Handy- Volume Atlas of the World, containing 72 New and Specially Engraved 

Plates, with Statistical Notes and Complete Index. Seventh Edition. Revised 

to date by E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S. London : George Philip and Son, Ltd. 

1907. (Price 3s. 6d.) ♦The Publishers. 
Philips' Progressive Atlas of Comparative Geography. Edited by P. H. L'Estrange, 

B.A. London: George Philip and Son. (Price 3s. 6d.) *The Publishers. 
Atlas of the World's Commerce. By J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. 

Parts: 18, 19, 20, 21, 22. London: George Newnes Ltd. 1907. 'The 

Publishers. 
Geological Atlas of Great Britain and Ireland (based on Reynold's Geological Atlas^ 

with Plates of Characteristic Fossils, preceded by Descriptions of the Geological 

Structure of Great Britain and Ireland and their Counties : and of the Features 

observable along the principal Lines of Railway. By Horace Woodward, F.R.S., 

F.G.S. Second Edition. London : Edward Stanford. 1907. (Price 12s. 6d. net.) 

•The Publishers. 
Bead Scene: Barton Miss. (Framed Photograph.) By Mr. R. Lawton. * Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 



BOOKS. 



GENERAL. 
The World of To-Day : A Survey of the Lands and Peoples of the Globe as seen 

in Travel and Commerce. By A. R. Hope Moncrieff. Maps and Illustrations. 

In six Volumes. London : The Gresham Publishing Company. 1905. * The 

Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Nonveau Voyage Autour Du Monde, par GuiUaume Dampier. Tome 1. Cartes and 

Figues. Rouen : Chez Jean-Baptiste Machuel. 1723. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 



226 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

The Travels of the late Charles Thompson, Esq. Maps and Illustrations. In three 
Volumes. Reading: J. Newbery and C. Micklewright 1744. "Mr. Charles 
Roeder. 

Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, or, A Complete Collection of Voyages 
and Travels, consisting of above six hundred of the most authentic writers. By 
John Harris, D.D., and F.R.S. Charts, Maps and Cuts. In two Volumes. 
London : T. Woodward, and others. 1744. • Mr. C. A. Clarke. 

Travels in the East, including a Journey in the Holy Land by Alphonse de Lamartine. 
Travels in Russia, Tartary and Turkey by £. D. Clarke, LL.D. Travels in the 
Burnian Empire and Travels in Hindustan and China by Howard Malcom. 
Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers. 1839-40. (Bound in one Volume.) *Mr. 
Charles Roeder. 

The Traveller's Gazette. Vol. LVII., Nos. 1-12. 1907. Illustrated. London: 
Thos. Cook & Sen. *The Publishers. 

A Junior Course of Comparative Geography, consisting of Course "A" of "A Pro- 
gressive Course of Comparative Geography." By P. H. L'Estrange, B.A. With 
140 Pictures and Diagrams. London : George Philip and Son, Ltd., 1907. (Price 
2 / 6 net . ) * The Publishers. 

Elementary Studies in Geography. By H. J. Mackinder, M.A. Volume 1 : ** Our 
Own Islands." Maps and Illustrations. London : George Philip and Son, Ltd. 
1906. (Two Copies.) (Price 2/6.) * The Author and the Publishers. 

The Generall Praecognita of Geographic. By Heylyn. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 

The "Britannic" Historical Geography. Being a History, Geography and Mapping 

Book. Part 1 (to the Wars of the Roses). Part 2 (to the Crimean War). 

London : Charles and Dible. 1907. * The Publishers. 
Thoughts on some Important Points relating to the System of the World. By J. P. 

Nicol, LL.D. Illustrated. Edinburgh: William Tait. 1846. *Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 
0. Biidner's geographisch-statistische Tabellen aller Lander der Erde. Jahrgang, 

1884. *Rev, S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Problematical Features in Maps designed by Mercator and Desceliers. By J. R. 

McCJymont, M.A. Hobart : 1907. *The Author. 
Manual of Topographic Methods. Illustrated. Washington : United States Geo- 
logical Survey. Bulletin No; 307. *The Director of the Survey. 
Elementary Treatise on Strategy. By Edward Yates, B.A. Maps. London : Parker^ 

Furnival and Parker, 1852. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences. By Mrs. Somerville. London : John 

Murray. 1834. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Introduction to Astronomy. By John Bonnycastle. Fifth Edition. Illustrated. 

London : J. Johnson. 1807. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Researches in Theoretical Geology. By H. T. De La Beche, F.R.S., V.P.G.S. 

Illustrated. London : Charles Knight. 1834. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Contributions to Economic Geology. 1906. Part 1 : Metals and Non-metals, except 

Fuels. Maps. Washington: U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 815. *T\» 

Director of the Survey. 



i 



List of Books 227 

Beoent Results of Terrestrial Magnetic Observations. By L. A. Bauer. (Reprinted 
from the Technology Quarterly, Vol. XX., No. 2, June, 1907.) * Director, 
Carnegie Institution. 

Report of the Department of Research in Terrestrial Magnetism. By L. A. Bauer, 
Director, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 1907. * Director, Carnegie 
Institution. 

BRITISH ISLANDS. 

The Survey Gazetteer of the British Isles : Topographical, Statistical and Commercial, 
compiled from the 1901 Census and the latest Official Returns. Edited by J. 0. 
Bartholomew, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., with Appendices and Special Maps. Edin- 
burgh : John Bartholomew and Co. 1904. * Mr. F. Zimmem. 

The King of Saxony's Journey through England and Scotland in the year 1844. By 
Dr. C. G. Carus. Translated by S. C. Davison, B.A., Dr. Ph., etc. London : 
Chapman and Hall. 1846. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 

A Journey into England by Paul Hentzner, in the year M.D.XC.VIII. Translated 
and Edited by Horace Walpole, F.S.A., and F.R.S. Vol. II. * Mr. Charles 
Roeder. 

The Natural History of England : In a continued Survey of each particular county. 
Vol. II. Maps. (The General Magazine of Arts and Sciences, London.) 1762. 
*Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Home Sketches, on Both Sides of the Channel, being a Diary by Thomas Lacy. 
London : Hamilton, Adams and Co. 1852. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Hill and Valley, or Hours in England and Wales. By Catherine Sinclair. Edin- 
burgh : William Whyte and Co. 1838. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Domesday ; or, an Actual Survey, etc. The County of Kent. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

A Description of Stonehenge : Extracted from the works of the most Eminent 
Authors, with some modem Observations on that Stupendous Structure. View. 
Salisbury : E. Easton. 1795. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Handbook and Illustrated Guide to Salisbury and Neighbourhod. Salisbury : 
Brown and Co. 1866. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

London in the Olden Times; or, Sketches of the Great Metropolis, from its Origin 
to the end of the XVIth Century. London : The Religious Tract Society. * Mr. 
Charles Roeder. 

A Guide over St. Paul's Cathedral; Including a copy of the inscription on every 
monument. Sixth Edition. Twelve wood Engravings by D. Leef . London : 
Adams and King. 1851. ♦Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Guide to the Crystal Palace and its Park and Gardens. By Samuel Phillips. Re- 
vised by. F. K. J. Shenton. Plans and Illustrations. Sydenham : Robert K. 
Burt. 1862. 'Rev. S. A. Stemthal, F.R.G.S. 

Guide to the Crystal Palace and Park. By Samuel Phillips. Map, Plan and Illus- 
trations. Crystal Palace Library. 1854. ♦Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

A Guide or Handbook to Richmond New Park. In three Languages,- English, 
French and German. Map. London: Trelawney Saunders. 1851. *Rev. S. 
A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 



228 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Summary of Proceedings, with Sermons and Addresses, at the Bissezcentenary 

Festival of St. Etheldreda, at Ely, October, 1873. By Charles Merivale, D.D., 

Dean of Ely. Illustrated. Ely : T. A. Hills and Son. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
The Easy Guide to Oxford. Plan. Oxford : T. and G. Shrimpton. 1868. * Bev. 

S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
A Week's Holiday in the Forest of Dean. Map and Illustrations. Gloucester : John 

Bellows. *Rev. S. A. St^thal, F.R.G.S. 
A Hand Book to the Ruins of Kenilworth Castle. Plan and Illustrations. Warwick : 

H. T. Cooke and Son. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
A Home Tour Through the Manufacturing districts of England, in the Summer 

1835. By Sir George Head. London : John Murray. 1836. * Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 
The Guide to Birmingham. Issued to the members of the Social Science Congress, 

Birmingham. 1884. Plan. Birmingham : Hall and English. 1884. * Rev. S. 

A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Guide to Walsall. Map and Illustrations. Walsall : W. Henry Robinson. 1889. 

* Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Programme of Local Arrangements, at the 77th Annual Meeting of the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science. Leicester, 1907. With Map of 
Leicester. * Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

A Guide to Leicester and District. Prepared for the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, 1907 Meeting, under the Direction of the Publica- 
tions Sub-Committee. Maps and Illustrations. Leicester. 1907. *Mr. J. 
Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

Glimpses of Ancient Leicester, in six Periods. By Mrs. T. Fielding Johnson. Second 
Edition, with supplementary Notes. Leicester : Clarke and Satchell. 1906. 

* Mr. J. Howard Reed, F.R.G.S. 

The Harrogate Visitor's Hand Book. Tenth Edition. Map and Illustrations. Ripon : 
W. Judson. 1851. 'Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Guide Book to Ilkley and Neighbourhood. Third Edition. Map, Plan and Illustra- 
tions. Ilkley : J. Shuttleworth. 1882. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

An Historical and Descriptive Guide to Filey. By Wm. S. Cortis, M.D. Plan and 
Illustrations. Filey: M. T. Kendall. 1860. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Port of Blyth. Map and Illustrations. BIyth Harbour Commissioners, 1907. 

Guide to Buxton and its Environs', including the Mines of Castleton, Haddon Hall 
and Chatsworth. Edited by Llewellyn Jewitt, F.R.S.E. Maps and Illustrations. 
Edinburgh : Adam and Charles Black. 1872. * Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Godlee Observatory. Second Annual Report, 1906. Manchester : The Municipal 
School of Technology. 1907. * The Principal. 

The Co-operative Wholesale Societies', Limited, Annual. 1907. Illustrated. Man- 
chester. 1907. ♦Mr. G. H. Warren. 

Guide to Blackpool and its Neighbourhood. By John Porter, M.R.C.S. Map. 
Blackpool : W. Porter and Sons. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

The Stranger in Liverpool : or, An Historical and Descriptive View of the Town of 
Liverpool and its Environs. Fourth Edition. Liverpool : Thos. Eaye. 1816. 

* Mr. Charles Roeder. 



List of Books 229^ 

Liverpool as it is ; or, a Guide for the Stranger and Resident. Ninth Edition. Map> 

and Engravings. Liverpool : Edward Howell. 1854. * Mr. Charles Roed^. 
Guide through St. George's Hall. By Walter Thomas. Plan. Liverpool: M. 

Rourke. 1856. 'Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Guide to Liverpool ; containing History of the Town and River. By Hugh Gawthrop. 

Map, Plan and Illustrations. Liverpool : R. H. Fraser. * Rev. S. A. Steinthal,. 

F.R.G.S. 
Guide to West Kirby and Hoylake, with Notes on Hilbre. Third Edition. lUms- 

trated. West Kirby : John Moss. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Prehistoric Glimpses of Eddisbury Hundred (Cheshire). Additional Notes on the^ 

Beginnings of Manchester. By C. Roeder. Illustrated. (Reprinted from the 

Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, Vol. xziv). 

1907. ♦ The Author. 
Guide to Southport and Neighbourhood ; To which is appended a Guide to Bathing. 

Map and Illustrations. Southport : Wm. L. Lang. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Guide to the Lakes, in Cumberland, Westmorland, and Lancashire. By the Author- 

of the Antiquities of Fumess (Mr. West). Map. London : B. Law. 1784^ 

*Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Companion to the Lakes of Cumberland, Westmorland, and Lancashire. By^ 

Edward Baines, Junr. London : Hurst, Chance and Co. 1829. * Mr. Charles. 

Roeder. 
A concise description of the English Lakes, and adjacent Mountains. By Jonathan 

Otley. Fourth Edition. Map. Keswick : Jonathan Otley. 1830. * Mr. Charles. 

Roeder. 
A Complete Guide to the Lakes, comprising Minute Directions for the Tourist, with 

Mr. Wordsworth's description of the Scenery of the Country, etc., and Three 

Letters on the Geology of the Lake District. By the Rev. Professor Sedgwick. 

Second Edition. Illustrated. Kendal : J. Hudson. 1843. * Mr. Charles Roeder.. 
Guide to the Lake District of Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. By E. 

L. Blanchard. Map and Illustrations. London : W. J. Adams. * Mr. Charles^ 

Roeder. 
Guide to the English Lakes. Map, Charts and Illustrations. Edinburgh : Adam 

and Charles Black. 1856. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Seaside Lakes and Mountains of Cumberland. By Edwin Waugh. Map and 

Illustrations. Manchester: Alexander Ireland and Co. 1861. *Rev. S. A. 

Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Picturesque Guide to the English Lakes, including the Geology of the District. By 

John Phillips, M.A., LL.D., etc. Fifteenth Edition. Illustrated. Edinburgh : 

Adam and Charles Black. 1868. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Guide to the EngUsh Lakes of Cumberland and Westmorland. Maps. Edinburgh : 

Adam and Charles Black. 1873. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Souvenir of the English Lakes. By Paul Jennings. Ten Views. London : W. A. 

Mansell and Co. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Hodgson's Westmorland. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Old Man, or Ramblings round Coniston. Second Edition. Map and lUustra^ 

tions. Windermere: John Gamett. 1857. "Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 



230 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

A Hand Book to Furness Abbey : with a short account of the Pile of Fouldrey and 
Rampside. Plan and Illastrations. Ulverston : J. Jackson. 1847. * Rev. S. A. 
Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

A Guide through the Ruins of Furness Abbey, with a Brief Account of Dalton and 
Pile Castle. Plan and Illustrations. Ulverston: David Atkinson. 1857. *Rev. 
S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

History of Carlisle, Past and Present, and Guide to Strangers. With a New Plan 
of the City. By Mr. Asquith. Carlisle: A. Thurman. 1855. *Rev. S. A. 
Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

The Tourist's English — Welsh Vocabulary : containing the exact mode of Pronounc- 
ing the Welsh Alphabet, with a Collection of Useful Phrases and Familiar 
Dialogues. By H. Humphreys. Fourth Edition. Carnarvon : H. Humphreys. 
*Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

A Week's Wanderings amidst the beautiful Soenery of North Wales. By A. R. 
Martin. Third Edition. Illustrated. Bangor: A. R. Martin. 1854. *Mr. 
Charles Roeder. 

Guide to Colwyn Bay and District. Map. Colwyn Bay : R. W. Leathley. * Rev. 
S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Beaumaris and its Environs. With an account of the Bridges over the Menai. 
Beaumaiis: John W. Ambrose. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

The Tourist's Guide to Britannia Bridge. By Thomas Jackson, R.M. Illustrated. 
London : Smith and Sons. 1851. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

A Description of Carnarvon and the Neighbouring District. By Rev. J. Hews 
Bransby. Illustrated. Carnarvon : Williams and Hughes. * Rev. S. A. 
Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 

Isle of Man. Illustrated. A Literary, Historical and Pictorial Souvenir. By the 
Rev. John Quine. Eighth Edition. Bournemouth : W. Mate and Sons, Ltd. 
1907. *The Official (Tourists') Information Department for the Isle of Man. 

A Tour in Scotland. MDCCLXIX. Tros Tyriusque mihi nnllo discrimine agetur. 
The Second Edition. Illustrated. London : B. White. 1772. * Mr. Charles 
Roeder. 

Letters from Scotland : by an English Commercial Traveller. Written during a 

Journey to Scotland in the Summer of 1815. London : Longman, Hurst, Rees, 

Orme and Brown. 1817. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Scottish Tourist; Being a Guide to the Picturesque Scenery and Antiquities of 

Scotland. Edited by William Rhind. Ninth Edition. Illustrated. Edinburgh : 

W. H. Lizars. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Marine Hotel Guide to North Berwick and Vicinity. Map. North Berwick : J. 

Drummond. 1886. "Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Guide to Edinburgh. Second Edition. Plan and Illustrations. Edinburgh : John 

Lindsay and Co. 1825. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Hand-Books for Scotland. No. 3. The Clyde. Map. Glasgow : Thomas Murray 

and Son. 1854. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 



List of Books 231 

Toarist*s Guide to the Beautiful and Romantic Scenery of Loch Lomond, Loch 

Tay, and Glencoe; also, Loch Long, Loch Katrine, The Trossachs, Glasgow, 

Sterling, Edinburgh, Lake Monteith, and Aberfoyle. Fourth Edition. Map. 

Vale of Leven: John Robertson. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Guide to the Romantic Scenery of Loch Lomond, Loch Ketturin, The Trossachs, e^c. 

Fourth Edition. Map. Glasgow : James Lumsden and Son. 1840. * Rev. S. 

A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
The Highlands of Perthshire. Map and Illustrations. Edinburgh : Adam and 

Charles Black. 1865. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Scotland, its Faith and. its Features ; or, A Visit to Blair Athol. By the Rev. Francis 

Trench. In two Vols. London : Richard Bentley. 1846. * Mr. Charles 

Boeder. 
The Great North of Scotland Railway : A Guide. By W. Ferguson, Kinmundy. 

Edinburgh: David DougUs. 1881. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Oban, Staffa, and lona. Illustrated. London : T. Nelson and Sons. 1859. * Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 
Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. By Samuel Johnson, LL.D. Edin- 
burgh : Sterling and Slade. 1819. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Guide to the Island of Skye. Map and Illustrations. Edinburgh : Adam and Charles 

Black. 1854. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Gtiide to Skye and the Hebrides, including Wester-Ross, Strathpeffer, Loch Maree, 

and Gairlock. Map and Illustrations. Edinburgh : Adam and Charles Black. 

1880. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Hand Book to the Skye Railway, with excursions to Lochs Maree and Torridon, 

Gairlock, Skye, etc. Map. Inverness Advertiser Office. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, 

F.R.G.S. 
Shetland and the Shetlanders; or. The Northern Circuit. By Catherine Sinclair. 

Map. Edinburgh : William Whyte and Co. 1840. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
How to Spend a Month in Ireland and what it will Cost. By Sir Cusack P. Roney. 

Map. London: W. Smith and Son. 1861. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Picturesque Tourist of Ireland. Second Edition. Map and Plans. Edinburgh : 

Adam and Charles Black. 1857. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Hand Book, Dublin and Wicklow. By Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall. Map and Illustra- 
tions. London : Virtue, Hall and Virtue. 1858. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Exhibition Guide through Dublin. Compiled by Geo. K. Whammond. Map and 

Illustrations. Dublin : Henry Gonne. 1853. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Hand Book of Dublin. By D. Edward Heffeman. Plan and Engravings. Dublin : 

M'Glashan and Gill. 1861. * Mr. Charles Roeder. * 
The Tourist's Guide Book to Dublin, Kingstown, Bray, and the County Wicklow. 

Maps and Illustrations. Dublin : J. S. Wiseheart and Co. 1865. * Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 
Guide to Wicklow. Illustrated by J. Mahony. (From the Irish Tourist's Handbook. 

1860.) •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Rambles among The Channel Islands. By A Naturalist. Illustrated. London : 

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. •Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Illustrations of Jersey. London : J. and F. Harwood. 1855. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 



1 



\ 



232 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

EUBOPE. 

A Tour through Sweden, Swedish-Lapland, Finland, and Denmark, in a series of 

Letters by Matthew Gonsett. Second Edition. Illustrations. Stockton: 

Christopher and Jennett. 1815. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Personal Narrative of a Journey through Norway, Part of Sweden, and the 

Islands and States of Denmark. By H. D. Inglis. Fourth Edition. Map. 

London : Whittaker and Co. 1837. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Den Norske Turistforenings aarbog for 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, and 1901. 

Udgivet of Edvard Aansen. Illustrated. Kristiania : Grondahl and Sons, 

Bogtrykkeri. •Mr. H. D. Ledward. 

Winter in Schweden. Illustrated. Stockholm : Schwedischen Tduristenveranes. 

* The Publishers. 
Svenska Turistforeningens Arsskrift. 1907. Illustrated. Stockholm : Wahlatrom 

and Widstrand. 1907. * Svenska Turistforeningen. 
England and Russia; Comprising the Voyages of John Tradescant the Elder, Sir 

Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancellor, Nelson, and others, to the White Sea, 

etc. By Dr. J. Hamel. Translated by J. S. Leigh, F.R.G.S. London : Richard 

Bentley. 1854. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Pictorial History of the Russian War. 1854-5-6. With Maps, Plans, and Wood 

Engravings. Edinburgh and London : W. and R. Chambers. 1856. * Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 
Notes of a Half-Pay in Search of Health : or, Russia, Circassia, and the Crimea. 

By Captain Jesse. Two Volumes in one. Maps. London : George Routledge. 

1847. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
A Visit to Belgrade. Translated by James Whittle. London : Chapman and Hall. 

1854. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Dresden, Seine Umgebungen und die Sachsische Schweiz. von F. Gottschald. 

Dresden: H. M. Gottschald. 1851. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Le Gruene Gewoelbe a Dresde, ou Tr^or Royal D'Objets Pr^ieuz. Par A. B. de 

Landsberg. Troisieme Edition. Dresde : Chez Jules Blochmann. 1853. * Rev. 

S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Neuester Fuhrer duich den Harz. von Carl Bode. Karte. Nordhausen : Adolph 

Biichting. 1880. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Fuhrer durch Breslau und dessen Umgebung. Plan. Brealau : E. Morgenstem. 

1874. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Illustrated Guide through Frankfort o. Main and Environs. Map and Plan. Frank- 
furt 0. Main. J. Schottenfels and Co. 1899. (Also copy in German.) *Rev. 

S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Fuhrer durch Frankfurt a. M. und Umgebung. Herausgegeben von Leo Woerl. 

Mit einem Plane der Stadt. XXVI. Auflage. Leipzig : Woerl's Reisebucher- 

verlag. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Die Rheinlande von der Schweizer bis zur Hollandischen Grenze. Maps and Illustra- 
tions. Koblenz : Karl Badeker. 1855. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Fuhrer burch Freiburg im Breisgau und eine Umgebung von Gebruder Sommer. 

Maps and Illustrations. •Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 



List of Books 233 

Family Tour through South Holland ; Up the Rhine ; and Across the Netherlands to 
Ostend. Second Edition. Map and Illustrations. London : John Murray. 1836. 

* Mr. Charles Boeder. 

Impressions of Central and Southern Europe : Being notes of Successive Journeys in 
Qemiany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and The Levant. By W. E. Baxter. 
London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 1850. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 

A Tour through some parts of France, Switzerland, Savoy, Germany and Belgium, 
during the Summer and Autumn of 1814. By the Hon. B. Boyle Bernard, M.P. 
London : Longman, Hurst, Bees, Orme and Brown. 1815. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 

Narrative of a Journey from Constantinople to England. By the Bev. B. Walsh, 
LL.D., M.B.I.A. Map and Illustrations. London : Frederick Westley and A. 
H. Davis. 1828. *Mr. Charles Boeder. 

Guide to Berne and the Neighbourhood. By A. Waeber. Maps, Plan, and Illustra- 
tions. Berne : Society for Promoting Intercourse for Berne and the Neighbour- 
hood. 1891. *Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 

Schaffhausen and its Environs. Traveller's Guide, Maps, etc. Neuhausen : Hotel 
Schweizerhof. *Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 

Guide through Basic and Environs. Map and Illustrations. Basle : Hotelkeepers' 

Union. 1890. "Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Territet. By Two Swiss Mountaineers. Map and Illustrations. Zurich : Orell 

Fiissle and Co. *Bev. S. A. Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Wanderings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont Blanc and the Jungfrau Alp. By 

George B. Cheever, D.D. Illustration. Glasgow : William Collins. * Mr. 

Charles Boeder. 
The Prisoner of Chillon. By Lord Byron and part of the Third Canto of Child 

Harold. Fifth Edition. Vevey : Loertscher and Son. 1887. * Bev. S. A. 

Steinthal, F.B.G.S. 
Belgian State Bailway and Mail Packet Service. Dover-Ostend Time Tables. 

January, July and October, 1907. 
The Stranger in France; or a Tour from Devonshire to Paris. By Sir John Carr. 

Engravings. London : J. Johnson. 1807. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
A Book of the Cevennes. By S. Baring Gould, M.A. Map and Illustrations. London : 

John Long. 1907. * The Publisher. 
Letters from Spain. By Don Leucadio Doblado. London : Henry Colbum and Co. 

1822. 'Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Journal of a Few Month's Besidence in Portugal, and Glimpses of the South of 

Spain. In two Volumes. London : Edward Moxon. 1847. * Mr. Charles 

Boeder. 
La Ville de Borne ou Description abreg^e de cette Superbe Ville. Troisi^me Edition 

Corrigee et Augmente. Premiere Partie. Borne : Chez Charles Losi. 1783. 

* Mr. Charles Boeder. 

Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe. By G. Muir Mackenzie and 
A. P. Irby. Map and Illustrations. London : Alexander Strahan. 1866. * Mr. 
Charles Boeder. 



234 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Narrative of a Journey to the Morea. By Sir William Gill, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 
Illustrated : Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. 1823. * Mr. Charles 
Boeder. 

Cyprus : Its Resources and Capabilities, with Hints for Tourists. By £. G. 
Ravenstein, F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Maps and Plans. London : George Philip and 
Son. 1878. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 



ASIA. 

Palestine Exploration Fund. Annual Report and Accounts with List of Subscriptions 

for the year 1906. Quarterly Statements, January, April, July, October, 1907. 
Travels and Discoveries in the Levant. By C. T. Newton, M.A. In two Volumes. 

Maps and Illustrations. London : Day and Son. 1865. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Two Yeai's* Residence in a Levantine Family. By Bayle St. John. London : 

Chapman and Hall. 1856. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The First Expedition of the Portuguese to Banda, and the Events Antecedent 

Thereto. Compiled from the Works of Standard Authors. By James Roxburgh 

McClyraont, M.A. Hobart. 1905. *The Author. 
A Journal from Calcutta in Bengal, b> Sea to Basserah : From thence across the 

Great Desert to Aleppo : and from thence to Marseilles, and through France to 

England. In the year MDCCL. By Bartholomew Plaisted. Map. Second 

Edition. London : T. Kinnersly. 1758. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia, to various parts of Asia. By John Bell of 

Antermony. Maps. Edinburgh : William Creech. 1806. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Pen and Pencil Sket<:hes, being the Journal of a Tour in India. By Captain Mundy. 

In two Volumes. Map and Illustrations. London : John Murray. 1832. * Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 
The History of India, from Remote Antiquity to the Accession of the Mogul 

Dyna.sty ; compiled for the une of Schools. By John C. Marshmau. Fourth Edition. 

Serampore : J. C. Murray. 1863. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Tourist's India. By Eustace ReynoldsBall, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I. Map and 

Illustrations. London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd. 1907. * The 

Publishers. 
Hindu Mythology and Literature as recorded by Portuguese Missionaries of the 

early 17th Century. Translated by Dr. L. C. Casartelli, Bishop of Saltord. 

* The Translator. 
Reports on Plague Investigations in India. Issued by the Advisory Committee ap- 
pointed by the Secretary of State for India, the Royal Society, and the Lister 

Institute. Illustrated. London : The Journal of Hygiene. Vol. 6, No. 4 ; Vol. 

7, No. 3, No. 6. *The Advisory Committee. 
Assam District Gazetteers. Volume X. The Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the Garo Hills 

and the Lushai Hills. Allahabad. 1906. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 
Memories of the Revolution in Bengal, Anno Dom. 1757, by which Meer Jaffeir was 

raised to the Government of that Province, together with those of Bahar and 

Orixa London : A. Millar. 1760. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 



List of Books 235 

Bengal District Gazetteers. Vols, ii Cuttack, iii Gaya, iv Muzaffarpur, v Darjeeling, 
vi Darbhanga, vii Balasore, viii Patna, ix Palanau, x Champaran. * H. M. 
Secretary of State for India. 

District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Vols. xv. Budaun, 
xxxii Basti. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 

Central Provinces District Gazetteers. Balaghat District, Vol. A; Betul District, 

Vol. A ; Sangor District, Vol. A ; Seoni District, Vol. A. Maps and Illustrations. 

Sambalpu District, Vol. B. (Statistical Tables.) *H. M. Secretary of State for 

India. 
Letters from Madras, during the years 1836 — 1839. By a Lady. London : John 

Murray. 1843. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Madras District Gazetteers. Vol. I. Madura, Trichinopoly. Vizagapatam. *H. M. 

Secretary of State for India. 

Madras District Gazetteers. (Vols. ii. Statistical Appendices.) Ganjam, Nellore, 
Salem. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 

The Travancore State Manual. By V. Nagam Aiya, B.A., F.R. Hist. S., Dewan 
Peishcar. Travancore. In three Volumes. Map and Illustrations. Tribandrum : 
The Travancore Government Press. 1906. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 

Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. viii. — B. Kathia War. * H. M. Secretary 
of State for India. 

Punjab District Gazetteers. Vol. xiiiA. Jhelum District Gazetteer Supplement. 

Illustrated. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 
Punjab District Gazetteers. Vol. xixB. Lahore District, Statistical Tables, with 

Maps. 1904. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 
Gazetteer of the Chenab Colony, 1904. Compiled and Published under the Authority 

o^ the Punjab Government. Maps. Lahore : 1906. * H. M. Secretary of State 

for India 
Baluchistan District Gazetteer Series. Vol. V, Quetta-Pishin District, Text, and 

Vol. B, Statistical Tables and Explanatory Notes. Map and two Illustrations. 

Ajmer • Scottish Missions Industries Co., Ltd. 1907. * H. M. Secretary of 

State for India. 
Baluchistan District Gazetteer Series. Vols, iii, Sibi District, Text and Statistical 

Tables and Explanatory Notes, iv and ivo, Bolan and Chaghai, Text and 

Statistical Tables, vii and viiA, Makran and Khdran, Text and Appendices. 

* H. M. Secretary of State for India. 
N.-W. F. Province District Gazetteers. Volume 1b, Hazara District, Statistical 

Tables 1907. * H. M. Secretary of State for India. 
Our Island. A Naturalist's Description of Hong Kong. By Sydney B. J. Skertchly, 

F.G.S., M.A.I. Hong Kong: Kelly and Walsh, Ltd. 1893. "Mr. Charles 

Boeder. 
Descriptive Catalogue of the Chinese Collection, now exhibiting at St. George's 

Place, Hyde Park Corner. By William B. Langdon (Curator). London : 

Chinese Collection. 1S44. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
A Translation of San Tsi King. The Three- Character Classic. *Mr. Charles Boeder. 



236 Jouraal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

AFRICA. 
Africa. Vol. I. North Africa. By A. H. Keane, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Maps and 

Illustrations. Second Edition. Revised. (Stanford's Compendium of Geography 

and Travel.) London : Edward Stanford. 1907. (Price 15a.) • The Publisher. 
Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa, by the River Niger, in 1832, 

1833, and 1834. By Macgregor Laird and R. A. K. Oldfield. In two Volumes. 

Vol. ii. London : Richard Bent ley. 1837. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The British Cotton Growing Association. No. 22, November 1907. Experimental 

Work in West Africa. No. 2. 'The Secretary. 
The British Cotton Growing Association. No. 20, August 1907. Speeches by the 

Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill, M.P., on the Northern Nigeria Railway. 

* The Secretary. 

Tiavels in South Africa, undertaken at the request of the Missionary Society, by 

John Campbell. Second Edition. Illustrated. London : Black, Parry, and Co. 

1815. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Travels and Researches in Caffraria : Describing the Character, Customs, and Moral 

Condition of the Tribes inhabiting that Portion of Southern Africa. By 

Stephen Kay. Lor.don : John Mason. 1833. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Memorials of South Africa. By Barnabas Shaw. London : J. Mason. 1840. * Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 
Journey to Lattakoo, in South Africa. By John Campbell. Third Edition. Map. 

London : The Religious Tract Society. 1840. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Five Years in Kaffirland; with sketches of the late War in that Country, to the 

Conclusion of Peace. Written on the spot by Harriet Ward. In two Volumes. 

Vol. i. Map and Illustrations. London : Henry Colbum. 1848. * Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 
Kaffraria, and its Inhabitants. By the Rev. Francis Fleming, M.A. Map and 

Illustrations. London : Smith, Elder and Co. 1853. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Visitors' Guide to the Great Zimbabwe Ruins, Mashonaland, Rhodesia, S. Africa. 

By R. N. Hall, F.R.G.S. Plans and Illustrations. Cape Town : South African 

Newspaper Co., Ltd. 1907. 'The Author. 
The Prehistoric Gold Mines of Rhodesia. When was the Gold extracted from the 

rock? Not between 900 A.D. and 1760 A.D. By R.N. Hall, F.R.G.S. (Reprinted 

from "The African Monthly.") London: African Book Company. Ltd. 1907, 

♦The Author. 
Positions, Azimuths and Length of Sides of the Anglo-German Boundary Commission 

Triangulation (1902 — 1906), from Zanzibar to Mount Ruwenzori. With Two 

Charts. Recomputed under the Direction of the Topographical Section of the 

General Staff, War Office. August, 1907. • The Director of Military Operations. 
Meteorological Records. British East Africa. Reports from 1904 and 1903. 

Issued by the Agricultural Department. *Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G. 
The Globe Trotter. Vol. i., No. 26, July 4th, 1906: Special Big Game Edition. 

Vol. ii., No. 9, March 6th, 1907: Special Issue, showing what the Uganda 

Railway has done and is doing for British East Africa and Uganda. Illustrated. 

Nairobi (B.E.A.) : D. G. Longworth. 1906-7. •Mr. John Ainsworth, C.M.G. 



List of Books 237 

Nubia and Abyssinia. By the Right Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. and D.C.L. Third 
Edition. Map and Engravings. Edinburgh : Oliver and Boyd. 1833. * Mr. 
Charles Roeder. 

The Nile Basin. Part i., showing Tanganyika to be Ptolemy's Western Lake 
Reservoir. By Richard F. Burton, F.R.G.S. Part ii., Captain Speke's 
Discovery of the Source of the Nile. By James M'Queen, F.R.G.S. London : 
Tinsley Brothers. 1864. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Origines : or, Remarks on the Origin of Several Empires, States, and Cities. By the 
Right Hon. Sir W. Drummond. Vol. ii., Egypt. Maps. London : Baldwin & 
Co. 1825. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Present-Day Egypt. By Frederic Courtland Penfield, United States Diplomatic 
Agent and Consul-Genral to Egypt, 1893-97. Illustrated by Paul Philippoteaux 
and R. Talbot Kelly. London: Macmillan & Co. 1899. •Mr. J. Howard 
Bentley, F.R.G.S. 

Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope and up the Red Sea; with Travels in Egypt, 
through the Deserts, etc. In the Course of Last War. By R. Renshaw. 
Manchester: J. Watts. 1804. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 

Narrative of a Voyage to Madeira, TenerifTe, and along the Shores of the 
Mediterranean, including a Visit to Algiers, Egypt, Palestine, Tyre, Rhodes, 
Telmessus, Cyprus, and Greece. By W. R. Wilde, M.R.I.A. Second Edition. 
Dublin: William Curry, Jun., & Co. 1844. •Mr. Charles Roeder. 

A Treatise on the Clunate and Meteorology of Madeira. By the late J. A. Mason, 
M.D. Edited by J. S. Knowles. To which are attached a Review of the State 
of Agriculture and of Tenure of Land, by G. Peacock, D.D., etc., and An 
Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island, and Guide to Visitors, by 
John Driver. London : John Churchill. 1850. • Mr. Charles Roeder. 

AMERICA. 
Some information respecting America. Collected by Thomas Cooper, late of 

Manchester. London : J. Johnson. 1794. • Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Canadas in 1841. By Lt.-Col. Sir Richard H. Bonnycastle. In two Volumes. 

Map and Illustrations. London : Henry Colburn. 1841. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Remarks made during a Tour through the United States of America, in the years 

1817, 1818, and 1819. By William Tell Harris. London : Sherwood, Nealy 

and Jones. 1821. 'Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Monroe Mission to France, 1794 — 1796. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University 

Studies in Historical and Political Science. Series xxv., Nos. 2-3. • The 

University. 
The Areas of the United States, the States, and the Territories. Map. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 302. •The Director of the Survey. 
Results of Primary Triangulation and Primary Traverse. Fiscal Year, 1905-6. 

Map. Washington : United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 310. • The 

Director of the Survey. 
The Prevention of Stream Pollution by Strawboard Waste. Illustrated. Washington : 

United States Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 189. 

•The Director of the Survey. 



238 Jouraal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Investigations on the Purification of Boston Sewage. Illustrated. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 185. *The 

Director of the Survey. 
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 

Annual Report of the Director, 1907. Map and Illustrations. *The Director. 
The Granites of Maine. By T. Nelson Dale. M^s and Illustrations. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 313. * Director of the Survey. 
The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of Rhode Island. Maps 

and Illustrations. Washington: U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No. 311. 

• The Director of the Survey. 
The Cretaceous Flora of Southern New York and New England. Illustrated. 

Washington : United States Geological Survey, Monograph Vol. L. *The 

Director of the Survey. 
Rate of Recession of the Niagara Falls. Maps, Plans, and Illustrations. W^ashington : 

United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 306. *The Director of the 

Survey. 
Economic Geology of the Amity Quadrangle, Eastern Washington County, 

Pennsylvania. Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 300. *The 

Director of the Survey. 
Economic Geology of the Beaver Quadrangle. Pennsylvania. Maps and Illustrations. 

Washington : United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 286. * The Director 

of the Survey. 
Economic Gieology of the Kittanning and Rural Valley Quadrangle, Pennsylvania. 

Maps and Illustrations. Washington : United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 

No. 279. * The Director of the Survey. 
Oil and Gas Fields of Greene County, Pa. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Sui-vey, Bulletin No. 304. *The Director of the Survey. 
Geology of Oil and Gas Fields in Steubenville, Burgettstown, and Claysville 

Quadrangles, Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Maps. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 318. *The Director of the Survey. 
Quality of Water in the Upper Ohio River Basin and at Erie, Pa. Illustrated. 

Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper 

No. 161. "The Director of the Survey. 
Maryland during the English Civil Wars. Parts 1 and 2. Baltimore : Johns 

Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science. Series xziv., 

Nos. 10-12, and Series xxv., Nos. 4-6. *The University. 
The Physical Features of Calvert County, Maryland. Illustrations and Atlas. 

Baltimore : Maryland Geological Survey. 1907. * The Superintendent. 
The Physical Features of St. Mary's County, Maryland. Illustrations and Atlas. 

Baltimore : Maryland Geological Survey. 1907. * The Superintendent. 
The Potomac River Basin. Maps and Plans. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, 

Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 192. *Th€ Director of the Survey. 
Flowing Wells and Municipal Water Supplies in the Southern Portion of the 

Southern Peninsula of Michigan. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : United 

States Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 182. 'The 

Director of the Survey. 



List of Books 239 

Flowing Wells and Municipal Water. Supplies in the Middle and Northern Portions 

of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. Washington : Water Supply and 

Irrigation Paper No. 183. *The Director of the Survey. 
Pollution of Illinois and Mississippi Rivers by Chicago Sewage. Diagrams. 

Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper 

No. 194. •The Director of the Survey. 
The Quality of Surface Waters in Minnesota. Maps. Washington : U.S. Geological 

Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 193. *The Director of the 

Survey. 
Zinc and Lead Deposits of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Maps and Illustrations. 

Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 294. * The Director of the 

Survey. 
Geology and Underground Water Resources of Northern Louisiana and Southern 

Arkansas. Professional Paper No. 46. *The Director of the Survey. 
The Geology and Water Resources of the Western Portion of the Panhandle of 

Texas. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Water 

Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 191. *The Director of the Survey. 
Underground Waters of Coastal Plain of Texas. Map and Illustrations. Washington : 

U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 190. *The 

Director of the Survey. 
Economic Geology of the Independence Quadrangle, Kansas. Maps and Illustrations. 

Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 296. *The Director of the 

Survey. 
Water Resources of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico and their Development. 

Maps and Illustrations. Washington : Water Supply and Irrigation Paper 

No. 188. * The Director of the Survey. 
Geology and Underground Waters of the Arkansas Valley in Eastern Colorado. 

Illustrated. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper No. 52. 

*The Director of the Survey. 
The Yampa Coal Field, Routt County, Colorado. Maps and Illustrations. 

Washington : United States Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 297. * The Director 

of the Survey. 
Geology and Gold Deposits of the Cripple Creek District, Colorado. Illustrated. 

Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper No 54. * The 

Director of the Survey. 
The Underflow of the South Platte Valley. Illustrated. Washington: U.S. 

Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 184. * The Director 

of the Survey. 
Geology of the Bighorn Mountains. Illustrated. Washington : U.S. Geological 

Survey, Professional Paper No. 51. * The Director of the Survey. 
Geology and Water Resources of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Maps and 

Illustrations. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper No. 63. 

* The Director of the Survey. 
Geology of the Marysville Mining District, Montana : A study of Igneous Intrusion 

and Contact Metamorphism. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : U.S. 

Geological Survey, Professional Paper No. 57. *The Director of the Survey. 



240 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Preliminary Account of Ooldfield, Bullfrog, and other Mining Districts in Southon 
Nevada. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : United States Geological 
Survey, Bulletin No. 303. ♦The Director of the Survey. 

A Geologic Reconnaissance in South- Western Nevada and Eastern California. Maps 
and Illustrations. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 308. 

* The Director of the Survey. 

The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18th, 1906. Maps and Illustrations. 

Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 324. 'The Director of the 

Survey. 
Seismograph and Magnetograph Records of the San Francisco Earthquake. By 

Dr. L. A. Bauer. (Reprinted from the Popular Science Monthly, August, 1906.) 

* Director, Carnegie Institution. 

Preliminary Report on the Santa Maria Oil District, Santa Barbara County, 

California. Maps and Illustrations. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, 

Bulletin No. 317. • The Director of the Survey. 
^ Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. (Second Edition.) Washington : U.S. Geological 

Survey, Bulletin No. 299. 'The Director of the Survey. 
T Report on Progress of Investigation of Mineral Resources of Alaska in 1906. Maps. 

Washington: U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 314. *The Director of the 

Survey. 
* The Yukon-Tanana Region, Alaska. Maps. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, 

Bulletin No. 296. •The Director. of the Survey. 
^ Water Supply of Nome Region, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 1906. Map and 

Illustrations. Washington : U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation 

Paper No. 196. * The Director of the Survey. 
Six Months' Residence and Travels in Mexico; containing Remarks on the Present 

State of New Spain. By W. Bullock, F.L.S. Plates and Maps. London: 

John Murray. 1824. * Mr. Charles Boeder. 
Concordancia entre los Calendarios Nahuatl y Romano. Memoria leida en la 

Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica por el Socio Honorario F. F. del 

Castillo en la noche de su Recepcion Jueves, 22 Noviembre, 1906. * The Author. 
Expedition to the West Indies. Visit of the Delegation from the British Cotton 

Growing Association, January, 1907. Map. Manchester : Britbh Cotton Growing 

Association, No. 18. March, 1907. *The Secretary. 
Notice Historique sur La Guyane Fran^aise publiee a L*Occasion de TExposition 

Coloniale de Marseille (Mai — Novembre, 1906). Par Henri Richard, President 

Honoraire de la Chambre d'Agriculture de Cayenne. * Commissariat, Exposition 

Coloniale, Marseille, 1906. 
Compendio de Geografia de la Repdblica de Colombia (Sud- America). Por Angel 

M. Diaz Lemos. Sexta Edicion Illustrada con mapas y numerosos grabados. 

Barcelona. 1907. *The Author. 
The United States of Brazil. Map and Illustrations. London : Office of " The 

Sphere." *The Brazilian Legation, London. 
Tiahuanacu, Estudio de Prehistoria Americana. Por Belisario Diaz Romero. La 

Paz. 1906. * Sociedad GeogrAfica de La Paz. 



List of Books 241 

Los Ungulados Sudamericanos. For el Dr. S. Roth. Illustrated. La Plata : 

Anales del Museo. Secdon Paleontologica, v. •The Director of the Museum. 
Estndio sobre la Crianza de Ja Alpaca en le pats. Datos recopilados en cumplimianto 

de la Ley de 22 Noviembre, 1905. La Paz : Ministerio de Golonizacion y 

Agricultura. 1906. *The Minister. 
Les Pares Nationaux Argentins. Par Eugene Autran. Avec quatre vues et un Plan. 

(Extrait du "Boletin de Agricultura.") Buenos Aires. 1907. *Ministere de 

L'Agriculture. 
Essai de Flore Raisonn^ de la Terre de Feu. Par Nicolas Albof!. La Plata : 

Anales del Museo. Seccion Botanica, i. *The Director of the Museum. 
Crusoniana; or, Truth versus Fiction, Elucidated in a History of the Islands of 

Juan Fernandez. By the Retired Governor of that Colony (Thos. Sutclifte). 

Plan and Illustrations. Manchester: Thos. Sutcliffe. 1843. *Mr. Charles 

Roeder. 

OCEANIA. 

Our Antipodes : or, Residence and Rambles in the Australasian Colonies. With a 

Glimpse of the Gold Fields. By Lt.-Col. Godfrey Charles Mundy. In three 

Volumes. Vol. iii. Second Edition. Illustrated. London : Richard Bentley. 

1852. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Bush Wanderings of a Naturalist; or, Notes on the Field Sports and Fauna of 

Australia Felix. By an Old Bushman. London : Routledge, Wame, and 

Routledge. 1861. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Punch Jubilee. Fifty Years in Australia, 1855 — 1905. Illustrated. Melbourne : 

Special Issue of "Punch." August 27th, 1907. "The Agent-General for 

Victoria. 
The Journal of the Department of Agriculture of Victoria. Vol. v., Parts 1 to 12. 

Illustrated. *The Agent-General for Victoria. 
Victoria. Budget Statement, 1907-8. Delivered by the Hon. Thomas Bent, 

Treasurer of Victoria, on October 3rd, 1907. * The Agent-General for Victoria. 
Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a Residence in that Country from 

1839 to 1844. By Mrs. Charles Meredith. London: John Murray. 1844. 

*Mr. Charles Roeder. 
The Official Year Book of New South Wales, 1904-5. * The Agent-General for New 

South Wales. 
Western Australian Year Book for 1902-04. (Thirteenth Edition.) By Malcobn 

A. C. Eraser, F.R.G.S., etc.. Government Statistician and Registrar-General. 

Maps and Illustrations. Perth : 1906. * The Agent-General for Western 

Australia. 
The Southern Cross and Southern Crown; or. The Gospel in New Zealand. By 

Miss Tucker. Third Edition. Map and Illustrations. London : James Nisbet 

ft Co. 1856. 'Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Friendly and Feejee Islands : A lilissionary Visit to Various Stations in the South 

Sea, in the Year MDCCCXLVII. By the Rev. Walter Lowry. Map and 

Woodcuts. London : Charles Gilpin. 1850. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 



242 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Internal Taxation in the Philippines. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Studies 
in Historical and Political Science. Series zxv., No. 1. *The Uniyersity. 

Narrative of a Tonr through Hawaii, or Owhyhee. By William Ellis. Second 
Edition. Maps and Illustrations. London : H. Fisher, Son, and P. Jackson. 
1827. •Mr. Charles Boeder. 

POLAR REGIONS. 

The History of Greenland. Vol. i. Illustrated. 1765. "Mr. Charles Boeder. 

An Historical and Descriptive Account of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. 
Maps and Illustrations. Edinburgh : Oliver and Boyd. 1840. * Mr. Charles 
Boeder. 

The Ziegler Polar Expedition, 1903 — 1906. Anthony Fiala, Commander. Scientific 
Besults obtained under the direction of William J. Peters, representative of the 
National Greographic Society. Edited by John A. Fleming. Maps and 
Illustrations. Published under the auspices of the National Greographical Society 
by the Estate of William Ziegler. Washington : D.C., 1907. *The Publishers. 



List of Corresponding Societies, etc. (Exchanges). 

BBITISH. 

Belfast. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Beport and Proceedings for 

the Session 1905-1906. 
Birmingham. Natural History and Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. XII., 

Nos. 1, 2. 
Cardiff. Naturalists* Society. Beport and Transactions. Vol. XXXIX., 1906. 
Croydon. Natural History and Scientific Society. Proceedings and Transactions. 

1906-1907. 
Edinburgh. Boyal Scottish Geographical Society. Magazine. 1907. Vol. XXIII., 

Nos. 1-12, and Index. 
Glasgow. Boyal Philosophical Society. Proceedings. (Nothing received.) 
Hertford. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. Transactions. 

Vol. XIII., Parts 1, 2. 
Leeds. Geological Association. Transactions. (Nothing received.) 
Leeds. Yorkshire Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol. XVI., Part II., 1907. 
Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Transactions. Vol. XI., Parts 1. 2. 
Liverpool. Geographical Society. Transactions and Fifteenth Annual Beport, 1906. 
Liverpool. Greological Society. Proceedings. (Nothing received.) 
London. Anti-Slavery Beporter. Vol. XXVII., Nos. 2-5. Beport for 1906. 
London. British Association for the Advancement of Science. Beport of the 

Seventy-Sixth Meeting, held at York, 1906. Beport of the Corresponding 

Societies Committee and of the Conference of Delegates, Leicester Meeting, 1907. 
London. The Colliery Guardian. 1907, Nos. 2401-2462. 
London. Boyal Colonial Institute. Beport of Proceedings. 1906-1907, Vol. XXXVIII. 



List of Exchanges 243 

London. Emigrants' Information Office. Combined Circular for Canada, Australasia 

and the South African Colonies. 1907, Quarterly. 
London. Boyal Geographical Society. The Geographical Journal. 1907, January to 

December. Year Book and Record. 
London. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. Vol. V., Nos. 1-4. 
London. India Office. List of Maps, Plans, etc., of India and other parts of Asia. 

Appendices, Nos. LVIII-LX. 
London. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-10 and Appendices 

I.-V. 
London. Royal Society of Literature. Transactions. Vol. XXVII., Parts 3, 4. 

Report and List of Fellows. (See also List of Books.) 
London. War Office. Topographical Section, General Staff. Maps. (See list of 

Maps.) Appendix XI. Text Book of Topographical Surveying. (Tables used 

in Projecting Maps.) 
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps. Accessions. 1906, July to December; 

1907, January to June. 
London. War Office Library. List of Accessions. 1907, January to December. 
London. War Office Library. Geographical Index (Extra European) of Accessions. 

1906, Annual; 1907, January to December. 
London. War Office. Catalogue of Maps in Books and Periodicals contained in 

the War Office Library. Accessions. 1906. 
Manchester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Memoirs and Proceedings. 

Vol. 51, Parts I., II., and IIL 
Manchester. Museum, Owens College. Publications. Nos. 61, 62. 
Manchester. Textile Recorder. 1907, Nos. 286-296. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne. Tyneside Geographical Society. Journal. (Nothing received.) 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical 

Engineers. Transactions. Vol. LIV., Part 9; LV., 7; LVI., 4, 5, 6; LVII., 

2-6. Annual Report for 1896-7. Subject-Matter Index of Mining, Mechanical 

and Metallurgical Literature for the Year 1902. 
Oxford. Geographical Association. The Geographical Teacher. Vol. III., Parts 

6, 6; IV., 1, 2, 3. 
Penzance. Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions. Vol. XIII., 

Part III. 
Rochdale. Literary and Scientific Society. Transactions. (Nothing received.) 
Sal ford. Museum, Libraries and Parks Committee. 59th Annual Report. 1906-7. 
York. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Annual Report for 1906. 

MISSIONARY. 
Freiburg-in-Breisgau. Die Katholischen Missionen (Illustrated). 1907. January to 

December. 
London. Baptist Missionary Society. Missionary Herald. 1907, December. 
London. British and Foreign Bible Society. (Nothing received.) 
London. Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East. Report of Proceedings. 

108th year, 1906-1907. 
London. Church Missionary Review. 1907, January to December. 



244 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

London. Colonial and Continental Church Society. Greater Britain Messenger. 
1907, January to December. 

London. London Missionary Society. The One Hundred and Twelfth Beport for 
the year ending March 31st, 1907. 

London. Illustrated Catholic Missions. 1907, January to December. 

London. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Beport 
for the year 1906. 

London. Universities Mission to Central Africa. "Central Africa." 1907, January 
to December. 

London. The United Methodist Church. Missionary Echo. 1907, January to 
December. 

Mangalore. Basel German Evangelical Mission in South- Western India. The Sixty- 
Seventh Beport for the year 1906. 

COLONIAL. 
Adelaide. Boyal Geographical Society of Australasia. South Australian Branch. 

Proceedings. Session 1906-7, Vol. IX. 
Brisbane. Boyal Geographical Society of Australasia. Queensland Branch. 

Queensland Geographical Journal. 1905-6, Vol. XXI. ; 1906-1907, Vol. XXII. 
Brisbane. Queensland Museum. Annals. No. 7. 
Brisbane. Department of Mines. Queensland Geological Survey. Publications. 

Nos. 207-213, 216. 
Bulawayo. Bhodesia Scientific Association. Proceedings. 1906, Vol. VI., Part II. 
Cape Town. South African Philosophical Society. Transactions. Vol. XIIL, Part 11. ; 

XVI., 5; XVIL, 1. 
Halifax. Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions. 1903- 

1904, Vol. XI., Part 2. 
Melbourne. Boyal Geographical Society of Australasia. Victorian Branch. Victoria 

Geographical Journal. 1905-1906, Vols. XXIII., XXIV. 
Melbourne. Victorian Statistical Department. Year Book. 1906-7. 
Perth. Western Australia Geological Survey. Bulletin Nos. 23-26. 
Port Moresby. British New Guinea. Annual Beport for the year ending June 30th, 

1906. 
Quebec. Geographical Society. (Nothing received.) 
Sydney. Boyal Geographical Society of Australasia. New South Wales Branch. 

Nothing received.) 
Sydney. New South Wales, Department of Mines and Agriculture. Geological 

Survey. Becords. 1907, Vol. VIII., Part III. 
Toronto. Canadian Institute. (Nothing received.) 
WelHi^i^toii. Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand. Beports for the 

yojii 1906-7. C-1, General Beport; C-1a, Surveys; C-1b, State Nurseries and 

riiiiitAtions ; C-4, Timber Industry. 

FOBEIGN. 
Algur. Society de G^graphie d*Alger et de I'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin. 1906, 
Kt^. 3, 4; 1907, 1, 2, 3. 




List of Exchanges 245 

Antwerp. Society Koyale de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXX.; Tome XXXT., 

Fascicules 1-4. 
Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University. Studies in Historical and Political Science. 

Series XXIV., Nos. 11-12; XXV., Nos. 1-7. Circulars. 1906, No. 10; 1907^ 

Nos. 1^. 
Baltimore. Maryland Geological Survey. Wm. Bullock Clark, State Geologist. 

County Geologies. (See List of Books.) 
Bergamo. Bevista Mensile Illustrata D'Arti, Letteratura, Scienze e Varietd. 

"Emporium." 1907, January to December, Nos. 146-156. 
Berkeley. University of Califoi-nia. Publications. Department of American 

Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol. II., No. 6; IV., Nos. 3-6, Index, etc.; 

v., Nos. 1, 2. 
Berlin. Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde. Zeitschrift. 1907, Nos. 1-10. 
Berlin. Deutsche Kolonialzeitung. 1907, Nos. 1-52. 

Bern. Geographische Gesellschaft. Jahresbericht. 1905-1906, Band XX. 
Bordeaux. Soci^t^ de G^graphie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-11. 
Boston, U.S.A. State Library of Massachusetts. (Nothing received.) 
Boston, U.S.A. Public Library of the City of Boston. Monthly Bulletin. Vol. 

XII., Nos. 1-12. Annual List of New and Important Books added to the 

Library. 1905-1906. Fifty-Fifth Annual Report. 1906-1907. 
Bremen. Deutsche Geographische Gesellschaft. Blatter. Band XXX., Heft 1-4. 
Brussels. L'Etat Independent du Congo. Bulletin Officiel. 1907, January to 

December and Supplements. 
Brussels. Soci^t^ Royale Beige de Geographie. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-6. 
Brussels. Le Mouvement Geographique. 1907, Nos. 1-52. 
Brussels. La Belgique Maritime et Coloniale. Journal Hebdomadaire. 1907, January 

1st to December 31st. 
Brussels. Institut Colonial Internationale. Biblioth^ue. 7meSerie. Les diff^rents 

Syst^mes d'Irrigation. Tome II. Compte Rendu de la Session tenue k Bruxelles, 

17, 18, and 19 June, 1907. 
Brussels. Society d'Etudes Coloniales. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-12. 
Brussels. Congr^s International ^our TEtude des Regions Polaires tenu k Bruxelles 

du 7 au 11 Septembre, 1906. Rapport D'Ensemble. Documents Preliminaires 

et Compte Rendu des Stances. 
Budapest. Society Hongroise de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXXV., Fascicules 

1-10. 
Buenos Aires. Instituto Geografico Argentino. (Nothing received.) 
Buenos Aires. Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires. Anales. SerieIIT.,Tomo VI.-VIII. 
Buenos Aires. Ministerio de Agricultura. Boletim. Tomo VII., Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6. 

(See also List of Books.) 
Buenos Aires. City of Buenos Aires. Statistical Annuary. XVIth year. 1906. 
Buenos Aires. Monthly Bulletin of Municipal Statistics. 1906, Nos. 11-12; 1907, 

Nos. 1-12. 
Cairo. Society Khedeviale de Geographie. Bulletin. Series VI., No. 12; VII., No. 1. 
Cambridge. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology. Harvard 

University. Memoirs. (Nothing received.) 



246 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Cassel. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Jahresbericht XXIV., XXV. 

Christiania. Norges Gieografiske Opmaaling. (See List of Maps.) 

Copenhagen. Oeografisk Tidskrift Udgivet af Bestyrelsen for det Konelige danske 

Geografisk Selskab. Bind 19, Hefte I., II., IV. 
Darmstadt. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Notizblatt. Folge IV., Heft 27. 
Dijon. Soci^t^ Bourguignonne de G^ogiaphie et d'Histoire. M^moires. Tome XXII. 
Douai. Union G^ographique du Nord de la France. Bulletin. 1905, Parts 3, 4 : 

1906, 1-4; 1907, 1, 2, 4. 
Dresden. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. Heft 5, 6. Mitglieder-Verzeichnis. 

April, 1907. 
Dunkerque. Soci^te de Geographie. Bulletin. Nos. 32, 33, 34. 
Firenze (Florence). Revistii Geografica Italiana. Bollettino. Annata XIV., 

Fascicolo 1-10. 
Firenze (Florence) . L'Opinione Geografica. Revista de Geografia Didattica. Ano III . . 

Xos. 1-12. 
Frankfurt. Verein fur Geographie und Statistik. Jahresbericht. Siebzigster 

Jahrgang, 1905-1906. 
Geneva. "Le Globe." Organe de la Soci^te de Gr^ographie. Bulletin. Tome XL VI., 

Nos. 1, 2 and Memoires. 
Geneva. Soci^ti des Anciens Eleves de TEcole Superieure. Bulletin. Nos. 75-78. 
Greifswald. Geographische Gesellschaft zu Greifswald. Jahresbericht, Vol. x. 

1882 — 1907 Bericht iiber die Tatigkeit der Gesellschaft in den ersten 25 Jahren 

ihres Bestehens erstattet vom Vorstand Greifswald, im Februar, 1907. 
Halle. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1907. 
Halle. Kaiserlichen Leopoldinisch-Carolinischen Deutschen Akademie derNaturforscher. 

Leopoldina. Heft XLIT., 1906; Heft XLIII., 1907. 
Hamburg. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen. Band XXII. 
Hamburg. Horizontalpendel Station. Professor Dr. R. Schiitt. Mitteilungen. 

Die Uhrenanlage der Hauptstation fur Erdbelrenforschung am physikalischen 

Staatslaboratorium zu Hamburg. Von Dr. S. Riefler im Miinchen. 
Hannover. Geographische Gesellschaft. Jahresbericht. Zweiter Nachtrag, Dritter 

Nachtrag. Zum Kataloge der Stadt-Bibliothek'zu Hannover. 
Havre. Soci^te de G^graphie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1905, Nos. 3, 4; 1906, 

2, 3, 4; 1907, 1-4. 
Havre. Soci^te Geologique de Normandie. Bulletin. 1906, Tome XXVI. 
Helsingfors. Soci6t6 de Geographie de Finlande. (Nothing received.) 
Helsingfors. Meddelanden of Geografiska Foreningen. Velenskagliga. (Nothing 

received.) 
Hermannstadt. Siebenburgischen (Transylvanian) Karpathenverein. Jahrbuch. 

(Nothing received.) 
Irkutsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. East Siberian Section. (Nothing 

received.) 
Jena. Geographische Gesellschaft. Meitteilungen. Ban^ XXV. 
Kazan. Naturalists' Society of the Imperial University. Journal. (Nothing received.) 
Konigsberg. Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft. Schriften. 1906, Vol. XLVII. 
La Paz. Sociedad Geografica de La Paz. (See List of Books.) 



List of Exchanges 247 

La Paz. Oficina Nacional de Inunigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica. 
Revista. Ano II., Nos. 19, 20, 21; III., Nos. 22, 24, 26, 26, 27. (See also 
List of Books.) 

La Plata. Direccion Greneral de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Boletin 
Mensual. Nos. 77-82. 

La Plata. Museo de La Plata. (See List of Books.) 

La Plata. Publicaciones de la Universidad de La Plata. (Nothing received.) 

Leipzic. Verein fiir Erdkunde. Mitteilungen. 1906. 

Lille. Society de G^graphie. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-12. 

Lima. Sociedad Geografica. Memoria Anual y Anexos. Tomo XVIII. ; XIX., 

Nos. 1, 3; XXL, No. 1. 
Lima. Cuerpo de Ingenieres c(e Minas del Peru. Boletin. Nos. 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54. 
Lisbon. Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa. Boletim. Serie XXV., Nos. 1 — 12. 

No Centenario de Bento de Goes (1607-1907) Homenagem de Sociedade de 

Geographia de Lisboa, 11 de April, de 1907. 
Lubeck. Geographische Gesellschaft und Naturhistorische Museums. Die Geograph- 

ische Gesellschaft in Lubeck in den ersten 25 Jahren ihres Bestehens, 1882 — 1907. 
Lwowie (Lemburg). Towarzystwa Ludozonawezego we Lwowie. Lud. XIII., 1-4. 
Madison. Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters. Transactions. Vol. XV., 

Part I. 
Madison. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Bulletin. No. XV., 

"The Clays of Wisconsin and their Uses"; XVI., "The Geology of North 

Central Wisconsin"; XVII., "The Abandoned Shore-Lines of Eastern 

Wisconsin"; XVIII., "Rural Highways of Wisconsin." 
Madrid. Sociedad Geografica. Boletin. Tomo XLIX., Nos. 1-4. Revista. Tomo 

IV., Nos. 1-12. 
Madrid. Ayuntamiento de Madrid. Estadistica Demogrifica. June, 1906, to June, 

1907. Boletin. Nos. 623-574. 
Marseille. Soci^t^ de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXX., Nos. 2, 3, 4. 
Metz. Verein fur Erdkunde. (Nothing received.) 
Mexico. Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate." Memorias y Revista. Tomo XXII., 

Nos. 9-12; XXIII., 5-12; XXIV., 1-12. 
Mexico. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica. (Nothing received.) 
Milan. L'Esplorazione Commerciale. Anno XXII., Fasc. 1-24. 
Missoula (Montana). University of Montana. University Bulletin. Nos. 36, 39-42. 
Montevideo. Museo Nacional. Anales. Vol. VL, Flora Uruguaya, Tomo HI., 

Entrega II. 
Montpellier. Soci6t6 Languedocienne de Geographie. Bulletin. Tome XXIX., 

Nos. 3, 4; XXX., 2, 3. 
Moscow. Geographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural Science of the 

University. (Nothing received.) 
Munich. Geographischen Ge-sselschaft. Mitteilungen. Band II., Heft 1, 2. 
Nancy. Soci^t^ de Geographie de VEst. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 3, 4; 1907, 1, 2, 4. 
Nantes. Society de Geographie. Bulletin. 1906 ; 1907, Nos. 1-4. 
Naples. Societii Africana d'ltalia. Bollettino. Anno XXVI., Fasc. 1-9. 



248 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Neuchatel. Soci^te Neuchateloiae de O^graphie. 1906, Tome XVII; 1907, Tome 

XVIII. 
New York. American Geographical Society. Bulletin. Vol. XXXIX., Nos. 1-12. 

New York. American Museum of Natural HJstory. Bulletin. 1906, Vol. XXII. ; 

1907, Vol. XXIII. Annual Report, 1907. 
New York. The Journal of Geography. Vol. VI., Nos. 1-5. 
New York. Public Library (Asior, Lenox and Tilden Foundation). Bulletin. Vol. 

XI., Nos. 1-12. 
Numberg. Naturhistorische Gesselschaft. Abhandlungen. Band XVI. Jahres- 

bericht, 1905. 
Odessa. Club Alpin de Crim^e. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1—6. 
Omsk. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. West Siberian Branch. Report of 

Proceedings. Vol. XXXI. 
Oran. Soci^t^ de Geographe et d*Archtologie. Bulletin Trimestriel. Tome XXVII, 

Nos. 110-113. 
Para (Brazil). Museo Paraense de Historia. Natural e Ethnographia. (Nothing 

received.) 
Paris. Soci6t^ de G6ographie. " La Gdographie." Tome XIV., Nos. 2-6 ; XV. l-€ ; 

XVI., 1-6. 
Paris. Soci^t^ de G^graphie Commerciale. Bulletin. Tome XXIX., No. 1-12. 
Paris. Society de 8p^l6ologie. Spelunca. Vol. III., Nos. 17-20; IV., 2^-31; V., 

33-34; VII., 47, 48, 49. 
Paris. Soci^t^ de Topographie. Bulletin. Tome XXX., Nos. 7-12; XXXI., 1-12. 
Paris. Comity de I'Afrique Fran9ai8e. Bulletin. 1907, Nos. 1-12. Les Renseigne- 

ments Coloniaux. Nos. 1-12. 
Paris. Service G^graphique et des Missions du Minist^re des Colonies. Revue 

Coloniale. New Series. Nos. 46-^7. 
Paris. Statistique Municipale. Ville de Paris. (Nothing received.) 
Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol. XLV., No. 184; 

XLVI., 186, 186, 187. 
Philadelphia. Commercial Museum. (Nothing received.) 
Philadelphia. Geographical Society. Bulletin. 1907, No. 1-4. 
Philadelphia. The Department of Archaeology. Free Museum of Science and Art. 

University of Pennsylvania. (Nothing received.) 
Prague. Soci^t^ de Geographie tch^que 4 Prague. Revue. (Nothing received.) 
Rochefort. Soci^t^ de Geographie. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 3, 4; 1907, Nos. 1, 2, 3. 
Rolla, Mo. Missouri Bureau of Geology and Mines. Biennial Report to the 44th 

General Assembly. 
Rome. Society Geografica Italiana. Bollettino. Vol. VIII., Nos. 1-12. 
Rome. Institute Internationale de Statistique. Bulletin. Vol. XVI., No. 1. 
Rome. Bollettino dell* Emigrazione. 1907, Nos. 1-20. 
Rome. Annuario Statistico Italiano. 1905-1907. Fasc. 1. 
Rome. Movimento della Popolazione Secondo Gli Atti dello Stato Civile NelF 

Anno 1905. 
Rome. Instituto Cartografica Italiana. (Nothing received.) 



k 



List of Exchanges 249 

Booen. Soci^t^ Normande de G^graphie. Bulletm. 1906, Nos. 1-4; 1907, Nos. 

1-3. 
San Francisco. Southern Pacific RaUway. "Sunset." Vol. XVIII., Nos. 3, 4, 5; 

XIX. 1-6; XX. 1, 2. 
San Francisco. Geographical Society of the Pacific. Bulletin. 1907, Vol. IV., 

Series 11. 
San Joae. Institute Fisco Geografico de Costa Rica. *' Mollusques de Tlsla del 

Coco." Par Professeur P. BioUey. Maps. 
St. Nazaire. Soci^te de G6ographie Commerciale. Bulletin. 1906, Vol. XX. 

Saint Nazaire; Son Port et Son Commerce. Plan and Illustrations. 
St. Petersburg. Imperial Russian Geographical Society. Journal. (Nothing received.) 
Santiago (Chili). Deutsche Wissenschaftlichen Vereins Verhandlungen. (Nothing 

received.) 
Shanghai. Imperial Maritime Customs, China. Statistical Series : Nos. 3 and 4, 

Parts 1 and 2 (Vols, i— v). Returns of Trade and Trade Reports for 1906. 

Part 3, Analysis of Foreign Trade (Vol. i. Imports; Vol. ii, Exports). Quin- 
quennial Reports and Returns, 1902 — 1906. 
Stettin. Gesellschaft fur Vdlker-u-£rdkunde. (Nothing received.) 
Stockholm. Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och G^grafi. Ymer. 1907, 

Haft 1—4. 
Stuttgart. Wiirtembergische Vereins fiir Handelsgeographie. Jahresbericht zziv und 

zzv. 1905-1906. Feier seines 25 jahrigen Jubilaums, 27 Februar, 1907. 
Tokio. Geographical Society Journal. 1906, Nos. 211—216; 1907, Nos. 217—228. 
Toulouse. Soci^t4 de Geographie. Bulletin. 1906, Nos. 2, 3, 4 ; 1907, Nos. 1, 2, 3. 
Tours. Soci^t^ de Geographie. Revue. 1906, Nos. 3, 4; 1907, Nos. 1, 3, 4. 
Upsala. Geological Institution of the University of Upsala. (Nothing received.) 
Vienna. K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen. Band L, Nos. 1 — 12. 

Abhandlungen, 1906—1907, Band vi, No. 2. 
Vienna. Verein der Geographen an der K. K. Universitat in Wien. (Nothing 

received.) 
Vienna. K. K. Geographische Osellschaft. Mittheilungen. Band L, Nos. 1 — 12. 
Washington. National Geographic Society. Magazine. 1907, Nos. 1 — 12. 
Washington. U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

Report. (Nothing received.) 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. C. D. Walcott, Director. Twenty-Seventh 

Annual Report, 1905-1906. 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Monographs. Volume L. 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Papers. Nos. 46, 61 — 54, 67. 

(See List of Books.) 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins. Nos. 279, 286, 287, 294—297, 299, 

300, 302—308, 310—315, 317, 318, 320, 323, 324. (See List of Books.) 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Resources of the United States. 

1905. 
Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply and Irrigation Papers. Nos. 

161, 182—185, 187—206, 208. (See List of Books.) 



2SP Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Washington. Smithsonian Institution. Reprints of a Geographical Character from 

the Report for 1905. Nos. 1679, 1680, 1681. 
Washington. U.S. National Museum. Reports for the years ending June 30th, 

1905; June 30th, 1906; and June 30th, 1907. 
Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau. Report of the 

Chief for 1905-1906. 
Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Weather Bureau. Monthly Weather 

Review. 1906, November and December, and Annual Summary; 1907, January 

to December. 
Washington. The United States Board on Geographic Names. Third Report, 1890- 

1906. 
Washington. U.S. War Department Military Information Division. (Nothing re- 
received.) 
Washington. U.S. Bureau of Education. Report of the Commissioner of Education 

for the year ending June 30th, 1905. Vols. I. and II. 



The Museum. 

ACCESSIONS. 

Cast of Stone Hammer from Brindlow Pre-historic Mine, Alderley Edge. Original 

in the possession of Mr. F. S. Graves, Alderley Edge. * Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Rock Samples (last cores of boring, 200 yards deep) obtained by the late Thomas 

Cooper, Esq., at Congleton, Cheshire. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Kabyle Lampstand. Found by Mr. Roeder, during excavations, in Cathedral 

Passage, Manchester, in 1901. *Mr. Charles Roeder. 
Old Swedish Gun. * Mr. George Thomas. 
Two French Cavalry Swords taken on the Battle Field of Sedan, 1870. * Mr. George 

Thomas. 
Tomahawk, obtained from a brave of the Crow Tribe of Indians in 1883 at a camp 

in Montana on the Yellowstone River. *Rev. S. A. Steinthal, F.R.G.S. 
Two Models. One of a " Kayak " and the other of an " Oomiak." Both are excellent 

models, true in detail and the work of an Eskimo at Egedesminde, Danish North 

Greenland. * Mr. James Brierley, M.A., F.R.G.S. 
Sections of various kinds of Wood Mounted in book form by a Paris Firm. *Mr. 

Charles Roeder. 



List of Members 



251 



LIST OF MEMBERS, 

December SUt, 1907. 

Note. — H signifies Honorary, C — Corresponding, L — Life, A — ^Associate, 
'Affiliated Societies. All others are Ordinary Members. 



Abbott, James H. 

Adam, Sir Frank Forbes, CLE. 
LAinsworth, John, C.M.G. (Nairobi) 

Alexander, Bernard 

Alexander, W. T., J.P. 

Ambler, Robert 
HArgyll, His Grace the Duke of, K.T. 

Armstrong, F. 

Aming, A. W. 

Arnold, W. A. 

Aron, L. 

Ascoli, E. 

Ashman, Edwin 

Ashworth, Francis, J.P. 

Ashworth, Wm., F.C.A. 

Atkinson, George, F.R.G.S. 

Balmer, J. E., F.RG.S. 
LBaimforth, Alfred 

Bardsley, G. W. 

Barlow, John R., J.P. 

Barningham, James 

Bamingham, Thomas 

Baronian, Z. S. Iplicjian 

Bax, Wm. Robert 
xBaxandall, Miss C. 
ABayley, Mrs. C. H. 

Beer, Walter 

Behrens, Coancillor Charles 

Behrens, Gustav, J.P. 

Behrens, Harold L. 

Behrens, Oliver P. 
HBelgians, His Majesty the King of 

the, K.G. 
cBellamy, C. H., F.R.G.S., Tourcoing 
ABellamyi Basil G. 

Bennie, Andrew 



Bentley, Miss R. 

Bentley, John Howard, F.R.G.S. 

Berry, R. H. 

Beving, C. 
ABickerton, Richard 

Bishop, J. 

Black, Surgeon-Major W. G., 

F.R.C.S.E. 

Blake, George Ingle 

Blake, John Charles, F.R.G.S. 
ABlanchoud, Mdlle. 
ABleloch, W. 

Bles, A. J. S. 

Bles, Marcus S., J.P. 

Bles, Philip 

LBoddington, Henry, J.P. 
cBodio, Professor Luigi, Rome 
ABolivar, Mrs. A. de 
ABolivar, Miss G. de 
HBonaparte, S. A. Prince Roland, Paris 
HBond, Rt. Hon. Sir R., K.C.M.G., 
Prime Minister of Newfoundland 

Bommiiller, Rudolph 
aBos worth, George R. 
HBotha, Rt. Hon. Louis, Prime Min- 
ister of the Transvaal 

Bowes, George T. 

Bradley, N., J.P. 

Bradshaw, Wm. 

Bramwell, Samuel 
cBrice, A. Montefiore, F.R.G.S. 

Bridge, Alfred 

Brier, Charles 
LBrierley, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. 

Briggs, Herbert 

Britten, S. 

Broadhurst, E. Tootal, D.L., J.P. 

Brooks, J. B. Close 



252 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



LBrooks, Mrs. S. H. 

LBrookfi, S. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Broome, Henry 

Brown, A. £. Buchanan 
LBrown, James, J. P. 

Brown, R. Hope, Carlisle 

Brumm, Charles, J. P. 

Bryant, James 
cBryce, J. Annan, M.P. 

Buckley, W. H., J.P. 

Burditt, G. F. 
ABurgess, Miss Helen M. 

Burgon, Councillor Anthony 
*Bumley Literary and Scientific 

Burton, Frank 
LBurton, Frederic, J.P. 

Burton, B. Graham 

Butterworth, Councillor Walter, 

Byles, C. B. 

Bythell, J. K., J.P. 

Calcutta Imperial Library 

Calder, J. D. 

CalTeH, D. R. 

Campbell, Richardson 
ACardwell, J. J. 
ACareswell, George 

Carson, Isaac Pitman 
LCarver, W. Oswald 

Chapman, Wm. 

Cheetham, J. F., M.P. 

Chorlton, Isaac 

Chorlton, James 

Chorlton, J. C, J.P. 

Churchill, Wm. W., junr. 

Clapham, Col. W. W. 
AClarke, Charles A. 

Cocks, John, J.P. 
ACohen, Meyer 
cColbeck, Rev. A. 
LColley, T. H. Davies 

Collier, J. E. 
ACollinge, Miss A. 

Colliver, Peter 

CoIImann, C. 
cColquhoun, A. R., F.R.G.S., M 



Congo State, M. le Secretaire General, 
Department de Tlnterieur 

Cook, George T. 
LCooper, Mrs. A. H. 

Cooper, J. F. 

Core, Professor T. H., M.A. 

Cox, Dr. Frederic 

Crawford, Wm. L. 

Crewdson, Alfred 

Crompton, Thos. A. 

Crook, Col. H. T., J.P., V.D., C.E. 

Crossley, W. J., M.P. 
ACrosthwaite, Robert, M.A., B.Sc. 
Club Crowther, Miss E., Altrincham 

Dann, E. W., B.A., F.R.G.S. 
Darbyshire, Alfred 
J.P. ADavies, Charles J. 

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, J.P., M.A, 

F.R.S. 
Dawson, T. Kyle 
HDeakin, Hon. Alfred, Prime Minister 

of Australia 
ADeakin, G. G. D. 
Deakin, Thos. S. 
Dean, Councillor J. 
Deeley, W. J., B.A. 
Dendy, John 
Dennis, Cammack 
LDerby, The Rt. Hon. the Earl of, 

K.G. 
Devonshire, His Grace the Duke of, 

K.G. 
Doggett, Captain A. 
Donnell, Joseph 
Donner, Sir Edward, Bart. 
ADowdall, J. B. 
Dowson, Rev. H. E., B.A. 
LDoxey, Alex. S. 
Duckworth, Charles 
Duckworth, Alderman James, M.P., 

F.R.G.S. 
Dutton, Thomas 

Earnshaw, Jacob, J.P., F.S.A.A. 
I. C.E Earnshaw, John A. 



List of Members 



253 



Eason, Edward A. Goetz, Edward 

*£ccle8 Prov. Ind. Co-op. Soc., Ltd. Goodbehere, Frederick G. 
Eckersley, William Goodwin^ Alfred 

Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Gordon, T. Hodgetts, CO., B.A. 



the Earl 
EUinger, Martin 
England, A. 
liErmen, Charles 
Eubank, Bev. B., M.A. 
Eustace, Bev. Alfred, M.A. 
Evans, £. Bussell 

Fairhurst, Mrs. 

Farmer, R. J. 
♦Famworth-with-Kearsley P.C.M.l Sy.LGroves, W. G., J.P. 

Feber, Harold Guggenheim, A. 

cFedotoff, A., Moscow Gunson, W. Telford, C.E. 

Ferguson, Wm. Guterbock, Richard 

Fern, George 
cFief, J. de, Royal Belgian Geograph- Hacking, Nicholas H., J.P. 



Gray, J. Reid 

Greenhow, J. H., Norwegian Consul 
AGreenough, Richard, Leigh 

Greenwood, A. Thompson 

Greg, Major Ernest W., J.P., CO., 
F.R.G.S. 

Gregory, Theodore, F.C.A. 
LGriffiths, Albert, D.Sc. 

Griffiths, Alderman John 
LGroves, J. G., J.P. 



ical Society 
Finningan, Wm., junr. 
cFisher, Rev. A. B., F.R.G.S. 
Fletcher, R. 
Follows, F. W. 
Forsyth, Henry 
Franc, Henry 
Frank, Ernest 



Hadfield, George, J.P. 

Hadfield, George 

Hailwood, Councillor Anthony, J.P. 

Hailwood, J. A. 

Hailwood, R. Emmett 

Hall, James, J.P. 
LHall, J. Howard, Bury 
cHallett, Holt S., M.I.C.E., F.R.G.S 



Frankenburg, Alderman I. (His Wor- Hallman, E. H. 



ship the Mayor of Salford) 
HFreshfield, Douglas W., F.R.G.S. 
Fuller, A. Walton, M.A., B.Sc. 

Gaddum, G. H., J.P. 
Galloway, George, J.P. 
Garlick, Thos. A. 
AGamer, Charles T. I. 
Gamett, Stewart, J.P. 
Geiler, H. 

Gibson, Alderman R., J.P. 
Ginger, George 
Glazebrook, Philip K. 
Gleave, Joseph James 
Glossip, J. P. B. 
Godbert, Chas. W. 
Godlee, Francis 



Hallworth, Joseph 

Hamp, E. H. 

Hampson, James 
AHandcock, H. C. 

Hanemann, A. 
cHanlon, Rt. Rev. Henry, Bishop of 
Teos, and Vicar Apostolic of the 
Upper Nile 

Hardcastle, G. L. 

Hargreaves, George 
AHarker, George 
A Harper, William 

Harris, Mrs. Isabella M. 

Harris, Wm. 

Harrop, G. A. 

Hassall, Councillor Thomas, J.P. 

Hawkins, William 



354 Journal of the Manchester Geogjaphical Society 



Haworth, G. C, J.P. 
Haworth, J. R, J.P. 
Haworth, Tho«. 

Haworth, W., J. P., Accrington 
Haywood, James H. 
Haze, Geo. A. 

Healey, Councillor D. (Hu Worship 
the Mayor of Heywood) 
LHealey, W., J.P. 
Heap, Frederic 
Heap, Alderman, W. T., J.P., Roch- 



Helm, S. L. 

Henriques, D. Q. 
cHerbertflon, A. J., M.A., Ph.D., Ox-' 
ford 

Herford, Miss C. 

Hering, ^l. G. 

Hesketh, W. R. 
AHewit, R. P. J.P. 

Hewitt, Elkanah 
LHeys, John, J.P. 

Heywood, Abel, J.P. 

Hicks, George 

Hiersmann, K. W., Leipzig 

Higginbottom, Walter 

Higham, J. Sharp, M.P. 

Hilton, John S. 

Hindle, James, L.R.A.M. 

Hinrichsen, S. 

Hobson, Bernard, M.Sc. 

Hockin, C. Owen 

Hodgson, William 
AHolden, Henry 

Holland, Sir W. H., M.P. 
AHollingworth, Edgar 

Hope, R. Ernest 



Hoyle, W. E., M.A. 
Hoyten, W^m. J., M.R.C.S., F.R-G.a 
Hughes, Joseph David 
Hulton, Edward 
LHutton, J. Arthur 
Hutton, R. W. 

Illingworth, Charles 
Ingham, A. J. 

Jackson, Andrew 

Jackson, Fred J. 
Ajackson, W^illiam 

Kjameson, Rt. Hon. L. S., C.B., Prime 
Minister of Cape Colony 

Janus, H. 

Jenkins, Alderman T. H., J.P. 

Johnson, E. 

Johnson, James 

Johnson, Lionel M. 
AJohnson, Oscar 
cJohnston, Sir H. H., F.R.G.S. 

Johnstone, Charles Andrew 

Jones, Frederick A. 

Jones, R. Lomas 

Jones, Wm., J.P. 

Joynson, R. H., J.P. 

Jucker, J. 

Kalisch, M. 
AKay, Miss Katie 
cKeiffer, F., Moscow 

Kelley, J. Macpherson 
HKeltie, J. Scott. LL,D., London 
*Kersal School (Rev. S. A. Leathley, 
M.A.) 



Hopkinson, A., Q.C. (The Vice-Chan- Kershaw, B. 



eel lor of Victoria University) 
Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc. 
AHopwood, Miss Mary 
Horsfall, T. C, J.P. 
Houghton, John 
Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart. 
Hoy, Alderman Sir Jas., J.P. 
Hoyle, E. 



Kessler, Henry 

Kessler, William 

Keymer, Sidney L., F.R.G.S. 

Kinch, W. S. 

Kirkpatrick, Henry, J.P. 

Kolligs, F. H., Consul for Ecuador 

Kolp, N. 

Kallmann, Julius 



List of Members 



255 



Laidlaw, Adam McNicol, A. 

ALaing, Wallace Magian, Anthony 0., M.D., F.R.G.S. 

ALancaster, James Magson, John 

iXanyon, James, J. P. Makin, E., junr. 

HLaurier, Rt. Hon. Sir W., G.C.M.G.,*Manchester Corporation, Free Librar- 



Prime Minister of Canada 
ALaw, Miss Annie E., L.L.A. 
ALaw, T. H. 

Lawson, R. G. 
ALawton, Miss Emma 

Laycock, Mrs. 

Lea, Miss, M.A. 
ALedward, H. Davenport 



ies Committee 

Mandleberg, G. C, J.P. 

Mandieberg, S. L. 
cMarrs, F. W., M.A., Bombay 
LMarsden, James, J.P. 

Martin, Horace C, F.R.G.S. 

Martin, Thomas 

Marx, Charles 



Leech, Alderman Sir Bosdin T., J.P.AMassey, Samuel 



ALeech, Miss 
cLeech, Wm. Booth 

Leeman, E. 

Lees, Walter 

Leigh, James 

Leigh, Sir Joseph, J.P. 
•Leigh Literary Society 

Lemon, Miss Ada 
iXemos, Professor Angel Ma Diaz 

Lewis, J. Tetlow, J.P. 

Little, David Ainsworth 

Littler, Henry Landon 

Logan, John 

Lomas, J. A. 

Longden, A. W. 

Lord, Charles 

Luke, Robert 

Lyall, A. 



McAdam, John 
Macara, C. W., J.P. 
McDermott, Rev. P. A., C.S.Sp. 
HMacdonald, Lieut.-Col. Sir J. R. L., 
R.E. 
McDougall, Alderman A., J.P. 
McDougall, L S., F.R.G.S. 
McFarlane, H. H. 
McFarlane, John, M.A., Victoria Uni- 
versity HNansen, Dr. F. 
HMcFarlane, Rev. S., LL.D. LNeil, Alexander 
HMacGregor, H. E. Sir Wm., M.D., Neild, Jesse 

K.C.M.G. Neill, Robert, J.P. 



A Mather, John 

Mather, Sir William, J.P. 

Mathison, Miss 

]Matusch, Mrs. M. 

May, Wm. 
AMaybury, J. H. 
AMaybury, W. H. 

Mazzebach, C. 

Mehl, F. 
LMellor, E. W., J.P., F.R.G.S. 

Michaelis, R. N. 

Middleton, T. C, J.P. 

Midgley, Alfred 

Milbourne, J. Parker 

Millers, R. T. 

Milligan, Wm., M.B., CM. 

Milne, J. D., J.P. 

Milnes, C. B. 
HMoloney, H. E. Sir Alfred, G.C.M.G. 
AMoon, J. Carter 

HMoor, Rt. Hon. F. R., Prime Min- 
ister of Natal 
, Moore, A. W. 

HMorgan, E. Delmar, F.R.G.S. 
aMoss, Miss M. A. 

Moxon, Thomas Bouchier 

Murton, T. P., London 



256 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 



ANewbigging, Thos., C.E. 
ANewton, Miss 

Nicholson, Joe 
ANoar, H. 

Norbury, George 

Norquoy, Alderman William 

Nonan, Thomas Joseph 

Nuttall, Harry, M.P., F.R.G.S. 

Nattall, Mrs. Harry 



Proctor, Mrs. 
AProctor, Miss 
Prussmann, Robert Henry 



ARadcliffe, F. 

Ramsay, P. J. 
ARawlinson, Miss Maud 

Reade, Charles E. 
ARedman, Rev. A., M.A., Heywood 

•rMoi. ^ X. T. X M. . Re«<*> J- Howard, F.R.G.S. 

*01dham Corporation, Free Libraries ^ . , t oa t 

n^^^ui^ Reid, James Stephenson 

LReiss, Alec 

Reiss, Gustay 

Renold, Hans 

Renshaw, James 
ARenshaw, Miss L. W. 

n , . o- J T Ti T7- Reynolds, R. H. 

Oppenheun. S.egn.»nd, J.P., Vice- j^^^^,^,^ ^ j^ j^ ^ 



Committee 
Oldham, H. Jule, M.A., F.R.G.S 

Cambridge 
O'Leary, J. W. 

cG'Neill, H. E., H.B.M. Consul 
Oppenheim, F. S. 



Consul for Austria- Hungary 
Oram, Mrs. 
Orr, Dr. J. 
Owen, W. 

Parkinson, J. B. 

Paterson, D. R., Junr. 
APayton, F. J. 

Pearson, George 

Pearson, Tliomas 

Peel, Hon. W. R. W. 

Pentland, Young J. 
APeters, Ralph 

Philips, Miss 

Phillips, R. C. 

Pilcher, Colonel Jesse, V.l). 
LPilkington, Edward, J. P. 

Pilkington, Lawrence, J. P. 
cPirigstone, G. A. 

Pingstone, H. C. 

Pidd, Arthur J. 

Pidd, Eli 
APidd, Mrs. Eli 
APidd, Miss Maggie 
LPorter, Rev. Canon W. C, M.A. 
East Africa 

Preston, H. 

Price, Hy. LI., F.S.A.A. 



Richmond, Wm., J. P. 

Rigby, Wm. 

Riley, R. J. 

Riley, Thomas 

HRoberts, Field Marshal the Right 
Hon. Earl, V.C., K.G., etc. 

Roberts, Edwin B. 

Robertshaw, James 

Robertson, W. J. 

Robinson, W. H. 

Rodger, G. F. E. 

Robson, J. Walter 
ARoeder, Charles 

Rogerson, James 

Rothschild, Hon. Walter, M.P. 

Rothwell, Alderman W. T., J.P. 

Royse, Councillor S. W., J.P. 

Russell, A. C. 

Ruttenau, Wm. 
ARutter, W. P., B.Com. 

Rylands, Mrs. 

Saalfeld, A. 

Salford, the Rt. Rev. the Bishop of 
•Salford Corporation Free Libraries 

Committee 
Sawer, Tliomas 



List of Members 



257 



Schlagintweit, T., Imperial German Sowerbutts, T. W., A.S.A.A. 



Consul 
Schofield, Edwin, J. P. 
Scholfield, Councillor A. Y. 
Bcholfield, Mrs. A. T. 
Schutt, Professor Dr. B,., Hamburg Steinthal, Rev. S. A., F.R.G.S. 
Schwann, Sir C. E., Bart., M.P. Steinthal, Egbert 



Sowler, Harry, J. P. 
Speakman, Walter 
Stadelbauer, H. 
Staniforth, B. A. 



Scott, C. Archibald 

Scott, C. H., J.P. 

Scott, C. P., J.P. 

Scott, J. E. P. 
AScott, Thomas 
ASeed, G. H. 

Segner, Ph. 

Sever, Cornelius 

Shann, Councillor Sir T. T., J.P. 

Sharrocks, Daniel, J.P. 

Shaw, Matthew 

Sheppard, E. F. 

Shorrocks, Henry 

Siegler, H. 

Silver, E. H. 

Silverstone, Michael 

Simon, E. D. 

Simon, Louifl 

Simon, Miss M. 

6imp8on,Alfred 
ASimpson, J. Harvey 

Sivewright, Wm. 
rSmallman, F., F.B.G.S. 
LSmith, Rev. Canon F. ( 
F.R.G.S. 

Smith, Carleton McDougall 
ASmith, Miss E. 

Smith, J. 

Smith, J. H. H., J.P. 

Smith, John R. 

Smith, T. M. 

Snaddon, Councillor John 



Stephens, Alderman Sir W., J.P. 

Sternberg, S. 

Sterne, Dr. L. 

Stevenson, Frederick 

Stevenson, John 
AStewart, Robert 

Stoker, R. B., F.R.G.S. 
LStonehewer, Walter 

Storey, Henry E. 

Stott, C. H. 
AStott, Miss Gladys 
AStott, Miss G. A. 

Stott, Julius 

Susmann, E. 
HSwallow, Rev. R., M.D. 

Swallow, R. W., B.Sc, Tai Yuan-fu 
LSykes, Arthur H., D.L., J.P. 

Symonds, The Rev. Canon 



Tatham, Leonard 
ATatton, Lees W. 
ATaylor, Albert 

Taylor, Miss A. I. 
M.A., Taylor, Arthur 

Taylor, Frederick 

Taylor, Miss Ruth 

Taylor, Walter 

Taylor, William 

Tejeria, Antonio Maria, Spanish Con- 
sul 

Terry, Henry 

Thewlis, Councillor J. Herbert, J.P. 
LThomas, George 



Somerset, Henry 

Sousa-Doiro, Baron de (Vice-ConsulAThomas, P. 
for Brazil) Thompson, J. A. 

Southam, T. Frank, M.D. lliompson, W. G. 

ASouthem, John E. Thompstone, Mark W. 

ASouthward, Henry cThomson, J. P., F.R.S.G.S., Brisbane 

ASowerbutts, Harry, A.R.C.Sc. Thomson, R. 



2S8 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Thorp, Henry xWebster, John 

Thorpe, Walter Weiss, Prof. F. E., D.Sc. 

Tout, Prof. T. F., M.A. Welldon, Rt. Rev. Bishop, Dean of 

LTrafford, Sir Humphrey F. de, Bart. Manchester 

Tulloch, Angus A. G. Welter, H. (Biblioth^ae Nationale 

Turner, William Section des Cartes, Paris.) 

LWhitUker, Mrs. A. H. 

Urwin, W. B. Whitworth, Herbert 

Wilde, Miss 

Vallance, A. C. Wilkinson, Wm. 

Vasquez B., Senor D. Miguel, Medel-HWillcocks, Major General Sir James, 
lin K.C.M.G., D.S.O. 

Vaudrey, Alderman, Sir W. H., J.P. Williams, James 

Williamson, R. T., M.D., F.R.G.S. 
HWainwright, Joel, J.P. Williamson, Wm. Henry 

Wainw right, Thomas Foster Wilson, A. 

Walkden, John, J.P., C.C. Wilson, Wm., J.P. 

Walker, George AWinstanley, T. G. 

A Wallace, Miss M. W. Wood, George Hervey 

Wallwork, Councillor James LWood, George W. Rayner, J.P. 

Wallwork, Roughsedge Woodhouse, J. H., F.R.I.B.A. 

Walmsley, G. E. Woodhouse, S. T. 

Warburton, Miss Lily Woolfenden, Joseph, jun. 

HWard, A. W., M.A., Litt.D. WooUey, George Stephen 

HWard, Rt. Hon. Sir J. G., K.C.M.G., Woolley, Hermann. F.R.G.S. 
Prime Minister of New Zealand AWool8ton,Miss M. 

Ward, Wm. H. Worthington, S. Barton 

cWardrop, A. Tucker, F.R.G.S. LWrathmell, T. 

AWarran, Geo, H. 

Waterhouse, I. C. 
AWatson, Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., Zabern, T. von 
R.£. Zimmem, Fritz 

Watt, Richard H. Zimmem. W. H. 



Rules 259 



THE 

MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 



RULES. 



I. OBJECT AND WORK. 

The object of the Manchester Geographical Society is to promote the study 
of all branches of Geographical Science, especially in its relations to commerce 
and civilisation. 

The work of the Society shall be : — 

1. To further in every way the pursuit of the science; as, by the study of 
official and scientific documents, by communications with learned, industrial 
and commercial societies, by correspondence with consuls, men of science, 
explorers, missionaries, and travellers, and by the encouragement of the 
teaching of geography in schools and colleges. 

2. To hold meetings at which papers shall be read, or lectures delivered by 
members or others. 

3. To examine the possibility of opening new markets to commerce and to 
collect information as to the number, character, needs, natural products and 
resources of such populations as have not yet been brought into relation with 
British commerce and industry. 

4. To promote and encourage, in such way as may be found expedient, 
either alone or in conjunction with other Societies, the exploration of the less 
known regions of the earth. 

5. To inquire into all questions relating to British and Foreign colonization 
and emigration. 

6. To publish a Journal of the proceedings of the Society, with a summary 
of geographical information. 

7. To form a collection of maps, charts, geographical works of reference, 
and specimens of raw materials and commercial products. 

8. The Society shall not enter into any financial transactions beyond those 
necessarily attached to its declared object, and shall not make any dividend, 
gift, division, or bonus in money unto or between any of its members. 

II. ORGANISATION. 

9. The Society shall consist of ordinary, associate, corresponding, and 
honorary members. 

10. A Council shall be chosen annually from the ordinary members to con- 
duct the affairs of the Society. It shall consist of a President, four or more 



ate Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, two or more Honorary Secretaries (including a 
Secretary for Foreign Correspondence), and twenty-one Councillors. 

11. There shall be three Trustees elected by the Society, who shaU hold 
office until death, disability, insolvency, or resignation. They shall be membos 
of the Council by virtue of their office. 

12. Any vacancy occurring in the Council during the current year may be 
filled up by the Council. 

III. ELECTION OF MEMBERS. 

13. Every candidate for admission into the Society as an ordinary or an 
associate member must be proposed by a member. The proposal shall be read 
out at the next Ordinary Meeting of the members, and any objection shall be 
forwarded in writing to the Secretary within seven days. 

14. The election of members is entrusted to the Council. The names of 
those elected shall be announced from the chair at the next Ordinary Meeting 
after the election. 

15. The Secretary shall within three days forward to every newly-elected 
member notice of his election, a copy of the Rules of the Society, and a card 
announcing the days on which the Ordinary Meetings will be held during the 
session. But the election of an ordinary or associate member shall not be com- 
plete, nor shall he be permitted to enjoy the privileges of a member, until he 
shall have paid his first year's subscription. Unless such payment be made 
within three calendar months from the date of election the election shall 
be void. 

16. The Council shall have power to elect honorary and corresponding 
members. 

17. Women shall be eligible as members and officers of the Society. 

IV. PAYMENTS. 

18. An ordinary member shall pay an annual subscription of £l. Is., or he 
may compound by one payment of £10. 10s. An associate member shall pay 
an annual subscription of 10s. 6d. The Society's year shall begin on the first 
day of January. 

19. Members shall not be entitled to vote or to enjoy any other privilege of 
the Society so long as their payment shall continue in arrear, but associate 
members shall not vote nor shall they take any part in the government of the 
Society. 

20. The first annual payment of a member elected in November or December 
shall cover his subscription to the 31st December in the year following. 

21. On the first day of January in each year there shall be put up in the 
rooms of the Society a complete list of the members with the amount of their sub- 
scription due, and as the amounts are paid the fact shall be marked on the list. 

22. Notice shall be sent to every member whose subscription shall not have 
been paid by the first of February, and if the arrears are not discharged by 
the first of July the Council may remove the member from the list of members. 
Any member, whose subscription is in arrear for two years shall not be entitled 
to receive the Journal of the Society. 



Rules 261 

V. MEETINGS. 

23. The meetings of the Society shall be of three kinds — Ordinary, Annual, 
and Special. 

24. In all meetings a majority of those present shall decide all questions, 
the President or Chairman having a casting vote in addition to his own. 



ORDINARY MEETINGS. 

25. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall be held once a month, from 
the month of October to the month of May, or oftener, if judged expedient by 
the Council. 

26. All members whose subscriptions are not in arrear shall have a right to 
be present. All ordinary members shall have the privilege of introducing one 
visitor. 

27. The order of proceedings shall be as follows : — 

(a) The minutes of the last meeting to be read and if correctly recorded 

they shall be signed by the Chairman. 
(6) Presents, whether of money, books, maps, charts, instruments or 

specimens made to the Society to be announced. 

(c) The election of new members to be declared and the names of 
candidates to be read. 

(d) Papers and communications to be read and discussed. 

28. At these meetings nothing relating to the rules or management shall be 
brought forward, but the minute book of the Council shall be on the table at 
each meeting for the inspection of any member, and extracts therefrom may, 
with the consent of the chairman, be read to the meeting on the requisition of 
any member. 

29. On occasions of exceptional interest the Council may make provision for 
a larger admission of visitors. 

ANNUAL MEETINGS. 

30. The Annual Meeting of the members shall be held at such time and 
place as the Council shall determine. 

31. Fourteen days' notice of such meeting shall be sent to every member 
within the United Kingdom who has given his address to the Secretary, and 
notice of the meeting shall be advertised in such newspapers as the Council 
may direct. 

32. The object of this meeting shall be to receive the Annual Report of the 
Council and the Treasurer's Balance Sheet, to hear the President's address, to 
elect the Council and officers for the ensuing year, and to transact any other 
business. 

33. Any two ordinary members may nominate candidates for the Council or 
for office not later than one week prior to the day of election, and the names 
of candidates so nominated shall be at once put up in the rooms of the Society. 
The election of the Council and officers shall be by ballot. 



262 Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society 

SPECIAL GENERAL MEETINGS. 

34. The Council may call a Special General Meeting of the Scciety whenever 
they shall consider it necessary, and they shall do so if required by 20 ordinaiy 
members. 

35. A week's notice of the time and object of every Special Meeting shall be 
sent to all members. No other business shall be entertained than that of 
-which notice has been thus given. 

36. Twenty ordinary members shall form a quorum. 

VI. COUNCIL AND OFFICERS. 

THE COUNCIL. 

37. The government of the Society shall be entrusted to the Council, subject 
to the rules of the Society. 

38. The Council shall annually elect a Chairman and Vice-Chairman. 

39. The President or the Chairman, or any three members of the Council, 
may at any time call a meeting thereof, to which every member of the Council 
shall be summoned. 

40. Seven shall form a quorum. 

41. In order to secure the most efficient study and treatment of the various 
subjects which constitute the chief work of the Society, the Council may 
Appoint Committees for special purposes. These Committees, with the appro- 
bation of the Council, may associate with themselves any persons — whether 
members of the Society or not — from whom they may desire to obtain special 
assistance or information. The Committees shall report to the Council the 
results of their proceedings. 

42. The President, Chairman, Vice-Chairman of the Council, and the 
Honorary Secretaries, shall, by virtue of their offices, be members of all Com- 
mittees appointed by the Council. 

PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

43. The President is, by virtue of his office, the chairman of all the meetings 
•of the Society. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice-Presidents 
may preside. 

CHAIRMAN OF THE COUNCIL. 

44. It is the duty of the Chairman of the Council to see that the rules are 
properly observed, to call for reports and accounts from Committees and 
Officers, and to summon, when necessary, special meetings of the Council and 
•of Committees. 

TREASURER. 

45. The Treasurer has the charge of all accounts; he shall pay all accounts 
due by the Society after they have been examined and approved by the Council. 

46. He shall see that all moneys due to the Society are collected, and shall 
■have power, with the approval of the Council, to appoint a collector. All 
moneys received shall be immediately paid to the bankers of the Society. 



Rules 263 

47. The bank passbook and the book of accounts shall be laid upon the 
table at every ordinary meeting of the Council. 

48. The accounts shall be audited annually by two members, who shall be 
elected at an ordinary meeting at least one month before the Annual Meeting. 

SECRBTARIBS. 

49. The duty of the Honorary Secretaries shall be : — 

(a) To conduct the correspondence of the Society and of the Council. 

(6) To attend the meetings of the members and of the Council, and 
minute their proceedings. 

(c)At the ordinary meetings, to announce gifts presented to the Society 
since their last meeting; to read the names of all new members and 
of candidates for admission, and the papers communicated to the 
Society, which have been directed by the Council to be read. 

(d) To have immediate superintendence of all persons employed, to make 
arrangements for the meetings of the Society, and to take charge of 
all maps, books, furniture and other effects. 

50. It shall be the more especial duty of one of the Honorary Secretaries to 
conduct, as may be directed by the Council, correspondence with Foreign 
Societies, and with persons resident abroad. 

51. In addition to the Honorary Secretaries, there shall be a paid Secretary 
appointed by the Council, whose duties shall be to assist the Honorary Secre- 
taries, to issue the notices of the Council and of the Society, and to act under 
the instructions of the Council. 



The foregoing Rules, as now amended^ were approved and adopted at a 
meeting of the members of the Society ^ of which due notice had been given to 
the members, held in the Town Hall, Manchester, Wednesday, October Srd, 
189j^. 

(Signed) GEOBGE, President. 

S. ALFRED STEINTHAL, Chairman. 
F. ZIMMERN, Honorary Secretary. 
JAS. D. WILDE, M.A., Honorary Secretary. 
ELI SOWERBUTTS, Secretary. 



[Copy.] 

It is hereby certified that this Society is entitled to the benefit of the Act 6 
and 7 Vict., Cap. 36, intituled "An Act to exempt from County, Borough, 
Parochial, and other Local Rates, Lands and Buildings occupied by Scientific 
or Literary Societies." 

Seal of Registry of 
Friendly Societies. 
This 15th day of January, 1895. E. W. B. 




^ 3MIiv,g^II3r 



■^^ iiding Reiiion 




. r^^d by the* 

AN Expedition 



- 5 



JUN 2 ""•